Glossary

Baha and bahi are institutions in Newar Buddhism that have their origins in Indian Buddhist monasteries (Skt. vihara). By the twelfth-thirteenth century, celibate monasticism had gradually ceased to be practiced in Nepal. Descendants of monks known as Shakya, a name which references their kinship with Shakyamuni Buddha’s clan and monastic affiliation, retained control of the former monasteries (Newar “baha” and “bahi”) as family property passed down through paternal descent. Along with Vajracharya Buddhist priests, they comprise the Newar Buddhist sangha. The bahas and bahis remain the centers of Newar Buddhist life today, and usually consist of an open courtyard with a stupa at the center and a large temple building on the side opposite to the entrance.

Generally, bardo is the state in-between death and rebirth, but Tibetan traditions distinguish four or six bardos, which occur throughout life, such as the bardo of dreaming, and death. The bardos are junctures at which the possibility for awakening, or liberation, is amplified. The so-called “Tibetan Book of the Dead,” as well as other texts, provide guidance for navigating these states, so that the consciousness of the deceased can be born in fortunate realms of existence, or even enter into awakened state itself.

Begtse is a wrathful deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. This deity was especially important in Mongolian regions, where he was worshiped as a martial god of a state cult and special protector of Mongolia from the eighteenth century until the Communist period.

Beri is a style of Tibetan painting based on Newar painting of the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal. With the destruction of many Indian monasteries in the thirteenth century, Nepal became an increasingly important source for Buddhist teachers and artisan.

Beyul are concealed valleys said to be hidden throughout the Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau. “Treasure revealers,” or terton, are able to discover these realms, providing refuge for their followers in times of danger. Several regions of the Himalayas, including Sikkim, are said to have been populated by Tibetans as part of this process.

Bhairava is a fierce guardian-deity worshiped by both Hindus and Vajrayana Buddhists. Among Hindus, Bhairava is considered a wrathful avatar of Shiva, while among Buddhists, he is considered an emanation of Manjushri. The worship of Bhairava is especially common in the Kathmandu Valley.

In Mahayana Buddhism, Bhaishajyaraja or Bhaishajyaguru is an important buddha who is associated with medicine and healing. Bhaishajyaguru is the teacher who expounds the Tibetan Medical tantras (Tib. Gyu Zhi), which traditional medical doctors memorize to learn the theory and practice of medical science.

Bhimaratha is a communal ceremony performed by the Newar people of the Kathmandu valley to celebrate the date when an elder turns seventy-seven years, seven months, and seven days old. During the ceremony, the elder and his or her spouse are pulled through the streets in a chariot by their children, whereby they are “deified” in the community. Artworks are often commissioned to commemorate the event.

Bodhgaya is the site where the historical Buddha Shakyamuni is said to have attained enlightenment. Located in what is now the Indian state of Bihar, Bodhgaya is the site of the Bodhi Tree, the “diamond throne” (vajrasana), and the Mahabodhi Temple. Bodhgaya is arguably the most important pilgrimage site for Buddhists.

The Bodhi Tree is the tree under which the historical Buddha Shakyamuni achieved enlightenment, located at Bodhgaya in what is now the Indian state of Bihar. The tree has been transplanted many times, and now many trees around the world claim to be descendants of the original tree.

In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a being who has made a vow to become a buddha or awakened. In the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, many bodhisattvas are understood as deities with enormous powers who delay their final enlightenment, remaining in the phenomenal world to help suffering beings. Among such great bodhisattvas are Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and Maitreya.

Bon is an indigenous religion of Tibet. Originally, Bon were a group of non-Buddhist ritual specialists in the court of the Tibetan emperors. From the eleventh century onward, an organized religion called Yungdrung Bon, or “Eternal Bon,” took shape. Yungdrung Bon developed in dialogue with Buddhism, incorporating deities called buddhas, scriptures modeled on the Buddhist canon, monks, and the establishment of monasteries. Followers of Yungdrung Bon trace their own origins to a founder called Tonpa Shenrab, who arrived from the semi-mythical land of Zhangzhung in western Tibet. The word “Bon” can also refer to the many non-organized indigenous religious practices, including the worship of mountain deities and making namkha. A follower of Bon is called a Bonpo.

In Hinduism, Brahma is a creator god, one of a trinity along with Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. In Buddhism, Brahma is also understood as a powerful god, although not an enlightened deity, who presides over a heavenly realm and protects the Buddhist teachings. Buddhists often depict Brahma together with Indra, as patrons and supplicants to the Buddha or Buddhist deity, or trampled underfoot, representing negative forces to be overcome.

Brahmins are the highest caste in Hinduism. According to Hindu scriptures, brahmins are supposed to be temple priests who maintain ritual purity, although in practice they have always worked in many trades.

The British Empire was the largest empire in world history, ruling almost a quarter of the world’s land area and population at its height in the mid-twentieth century. The British achieved hegemony in India after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and soon came to rule large areas of the Himalayas, including Kashmir and Ladakh. Several small Himalayan kingdoms, including Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim, were allowed to maintain semi-independence as buffer-states against Qing-controlled Tibet. The British briefly invaded Tibet in 1903–1904. After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, the British became a major cultural and military influence on the Ganden Podrang government in Lhasa. India achieved independence in 1947, ending British rule in the Himalayas.

Historians roughly divide human prehistory into three ages according to individual civilizations’ use of technology: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. According to archaeologist John Vincent Bellezza, the Himalayan Bronze Age lasted from about 2000 to 700 BCE, while the Iron Age lasted from 700 to 100 BCE.

In Buddhism and Bon, a buddha is understood as a being who practices good deeds for many lifetimes, and finally, through intense meditation, achieves nirvana, or ”awakening”—a state beyond suffering, free from the cycle of birth and death. “The Buddha” of our age is Shakyamuni, or Siddhartha Gautama. He is considered the founding teacher of the religion we call Buddhism. The buddha prior to Shakyamuni was called Dipamkara, and the next buddha will be Maitreya. These are known as Buddhas of the Three Times. Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists believe that there are infinite buddhas in infinite universes, who have many bodies or emanations. Other important buddhas include Amitabha, Vairochana, Bhaishajyaguru, Maitreya, and many more.

In the Yoga Tantras, practitioners are initiated into one of five Buddha families, which together form a mandala. Each family has a name, buddha, color, direction, and symbolic attribute:

• Buddha family, Vairocana, white, center, wheel
• Karma family, Amoghasiddhi, green, north, crossed vajra or sword
• Lotus family, Amitabha, red, west, lotus
• Jewel family, Ratnasambhava, yellow, south, jewel
• Vajra family, Akshobhya, blue, east, vajra

Each of the five directional buddhas also represents a specific wisdom quality, which overcomes a corresponding mental affliction.

Buddha Shakyamuni, or simply “The Buddha,” is an epithet for Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion. While the exact dates of Siddhartha’s life are debated, scholars generally place him in the sixth to fifth century BCE. According to early Buddhist narratives, Siddhartha was born a prince of the Shakya clan in what is now northern India and southern Nepal. Choosing to leave his palace and family for a life as a religious ascetic, Siddhartha achieved enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi Tree. Siddhartha spent the rest of his life as a wandering teacher, gathering disciples to form the early Buddhist monastic community (sangha). Buddha Shakyamuni is revered all over the Buddhist world today.

This is a group of buddhas that appear in paintings who are also invoked during tantric and offering rituals. The ten directions are the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west; four intermediate directions; and upward and downward directions.

Buddhists believe that there have been innumerable time cycles (kalpas) of creation and destruction of the universe in the past, and there will be innumerable more in the future. These extremely long periods of time are known as eons. The buddha of the past eon was Dipamkara, the buddha of our current era is Shakyamuni, and the buddha of the future eon will be Maitreya. These three are often represented and worshiped together.

Buddhism is founded on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who lived sometime between the sixth and fourteenth century BCE in northern India. Buddhists believe that sentient life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of awakening or nirvana, it is possible to escape this cycle. Buddhists refer to the Buddha’s teachings as the Dharma. There are many different traditions or denominations of Buddhism, including Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Scholars also discuss regional traditions, such as Indian Buddhism, Newar Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, and so on.

Vases are an important part of ritual paraphernalia and the iconography of many deities; they are often understood to contain the elixir of life. The central bulb of a stupa is often also called a “vase.”