Glossary

In Vajrayana Buddhism, dakinis are female deities. Called khandroma “sky-goers” in Tibetan, they are thought to be embodiments of enlightened wisdom and can appear in various forms. In tantric texts and practices, they are described as consorts and sources of wisdom and insight for yogic practitioners. Some dakinis appear wrathful, and are thought to drink blood and visit charnel grounds, where they encounter and instruct tantric practitioners. Tantras and biographies mention them as consorts and sources of enlightening wisdom for yogic practitioners.

The Dalai Lamas are a tulku lineage that has played a central role in Tibetan history for the last five hundred years. In 1577 a Mongol khan gave the Geluk monk Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) the title “Dalai Lama,” combining the Mongolian word for ocean, dalai (a reference to the depth of his knowledge), and the Tibetan word for guru, lama. Later, two previous incarnations were retroactively identified. The fifth incarnation, Ngawang Gyatso (1617–1682), allied with another Mongol khan to unite most of the Tibetan Plateau, forming the Ganden Podrang government that would govern Tibet until 1959. Since the Communist takeover, the current Fourteenth Dalai Lama has lived in exile at Dharamshala in India. The Dalai Lamas are understood to be emanations of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

Daoism refers both to a philosophical tradition and to an organized religion. In ancient China, texts attributed to semi-mythical figures like Laozi (sixth–fourth century BCE) and Zhuangzi (369–286 BCE) contained mystical speculation about the “way” (Dao) that brings humans into harmony with heaven, as well as explorations of philosophical and political relativism. From the second century onward, a ritual-exorcistic tradition appeared that called itself “the teachings of the Dao” (Ch. Daojiao). Mutually influencing with Chinese Buddhism, this tradition grew into an organized religion with monasteries, a priesthood, a canon of ritual texts, and a complex pantheon of gods organized into a bureaucracy modeled after the Chinese state which govern the natural world.

In Indian religious traditions, darshan means a glimpse or sight of the deity, often during pilgrimage, visit to the temple, or when the deity is brought out from a temple during a festival. It is believed that in these encounters, the deity also sees the worshipper via the consecrated statue. In Buddhist traditions, darshan is often interpreted as blessing, and sometimes can also refer to a meditative visualization or vision of a buddha or deity.

Different Asian religious traditions posit different types of divine beings. Hindus generally believe in an all-encompassing God-like being, called Brahman. They also believe in a variety of other gods (deva), including Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Early Buddhists denied the existence of a single, all-powerful creator god. Nevertheless, they always recognized a variety of powerful spirits, like gandharvas and nagas. Mahayana Buddhists came to see bodhisattvas as beings of enormous power, and buddhas themselves as cosmic beings with the ability to create entire universes. Buddhist and Bon traditions in Tibet worshiped a variety of other gods (Tib. lha), like the mountain gods, or gods of the land. According to Buddhist tradition, enlightened deities are seen as beyond the cycle of death and rebirth, whereas gods (including Hindu gods) are not.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, deity yoga is a meditative visualization practice centered on a deity. Practitioners imagine themselves as a deity (Tib. yidam), or visualize the deity in front of themselves, while contemplating and internalizing the deity’s enlightened qualities of mind and powers. As a result, the practitioners develop a special connection with the deity and attain the deity’s awakened state. Specific instructions on the practice of deity yoga are laid out in tantras, and in texts called sadhana.

In Hinduism, the devas are the male gods, like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. “Devi” are goddesses, like Parvati, Sarasvati, or Durga. Buddhists also believe that devas exist as powerful beings, for instance Brahma or Indra, but they do not believe these gods are immortal or enlightened.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, a dharani is a short, Sanskrit language text or spell-like formulas thought to have protective power when written or recited out loud, often as part of a ritual. Often inscribed on objects or at sacred sites, their power through the written physical presence is associated with long life, purification, and protection. Dharanis are similar to mantras, but usually longer. One important dharani is the Ushnishavijaya Dharani. The Pancharaksha is another important text that contains five dharanis of protection.

In Buddhism, dharma refers to the teachings of the Buddha, and to the Buddhist religion itself. In Hinduism, dharma means law, custom, morality, or a way of doing things. The word has other contextual meanings in different Indian religious traditions.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the “Dharma Realm” is the ultimate, empty reality as perceived by buddhas, also known as emptiness. The dharmadhatu encompasses all phenomena and is often described as a space where all things appear, abide, and dissolve. It is also synonymous with the nature of the awakened mind. Mandalas that represent the Dharmadhatu are found in Yoga tantras.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, a dharmapala is a wrathful deity who is bound to protect the Buddhist teachings and its followers. Many dharmapalas were originally non-Buddhist deities, who were adopted into the Buddhist pantheon as fierce or wrathful protectors, for instance Bektse or Mahakala. There are many dramatic stories of forced conversion, or pacification of local gods by powerful masters, such as Padmasabhava who were assimilated to become protectors.

Dharmaraja is a term of respect for high Buddhist figures, including the Buddha himself, high-ranking religious masters, and pious rulers.

A dhoti is a traditional Indian lower-body garment for men, made of a cloth wrapped around the waist and tucked through the legs from the back.

Dipamkara is considered to be the buddha who appeared in the eon previous to ours. Thus he is often worshiped as one of the Buddhas of the Three Times.

Divination refers to any supernatural means of knowing the world, including oracles, astrology, and geomancy (the study of forces in the landscape).

In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.

Dual rulership is a Tibetan political theory, in which secular and religious power are fused in the same government, similar to the Western idea of a theocracy. The Tibetan Ganden Podrang government, with the Dalai Lamas at the head, can be understood as a dual-rulership system. Dual rulership can contrast with a priest-patron or cho-yon relationship.

Every monastery has a dukhang, or assembly hall, in which all the monks can gather for daily recitations of prayers and rituals. These are often grand pillared halls with walls covered in murals, with buddha-images and a throne for the abbot.

In Hinduism, Durga is a fierce warrior goddess, sometimes thought to be an aspect of the great goddess Mahadevi, as well as the consort of Shiva. She wields all of the weapons of Hindu gods. Durga’s worship is widespread in the Kathmandu Valley, especially during the fall harvest when Durga rituals abound.

Buddhist monasteries often have images of four fierce Dharma Protectors painted or sculpted on either side of the doors, so as to prevent evil forces from entering the sacred space. They may also protect the gates of a mandala.

Dzogchen refers to ritual practices and philosophical texts associated with the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Bon. Dzogchen texts emphasize yogic practices, techniques for navigating the bardo states between birth and death, and the nature of the universe as pure, self-arisen consciousness.

In deity yoga, meditative practices usually begin with the “generation stage” (Tib. kyerim), in which the practitioner enters a state of deep concentration and then visualizes the deities of the ritual. This is then followed by the “completion stage,” in which the practitioner resides in the pure expanse of enlightenment and performs various activities as the deity.