Glossary

Achala is a wrathful deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, sometimes associated with the bodhisattva Manjushri, or the buddhas Vairochana or Akshobhya. This deity was particularly popular in the Tangut kingdom and in the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, the Adibuddha is the “dharma body” or true, primordial form of all buddhas, the original, empty nature of reality itself. In the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, this is often understood to be a specific buddha called Samantabhadra.

Akshobhya is a buddha in the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions. In the Five Buddha Family system of Vajrayana Buddhism, Akshobhya is the Buddha of the Vajra family, colored blue, and associated with the direction East.

Amitabha is an important buddha in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Amitabha is often said to dwell in Sukhavati, meaning “endowed with bliss,” a pure land in the distant west where humans hope to be reborn. In the Five Buddha Family system of Vajrayana Buddhism, Amitabha is the Buddha of the Lotus family, colored red, and associated with the direction West.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, Amitayus is an important long-life deity. Often depicted holding a vase of long-life, Amitayus is frequently paired together with White Tara and Ushnishavijaya as the Three Long Life Deities. Red in color and adorned with jewel ornaments and a crown, he is the sambhogakaya form of Amitabha, who in monk’s robes is the nirmanakaya form.

Amoghapasha is a bodhisattva in Vajrayana Buddhism. The “lasso” in his name refers to his ability to catch sentient beings and lift them out of suffering. Amoghapasha is closely associated with the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, and in some contexts can be understood as a form of the same deity.

In early Buddhism, arhats were those who had followed the path taught by the Buddha, and achieved release from the cycle of birth and death, or samsara. In later Mahayana traditions in China, the arhats were understood as a set group of disciples to the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, and an artistic tradition arose that depicted them as wizened sages with exaggerated features drawn from Daoist immortal imagery. Inspired by these Chinese paintings, Tibetan artists began to depict these figures in a genre that often carried with it aspects of Chinese artistic and material culture. In the Tibetan tradition they appear as a group of sixteen, representing the monastic ideal, and are invoked in rituals of confession and mending vows.

Avalokiteshvara, an embodiment of compassion, is a powerful bodhisattva, worshiped all across the Buddhist world. Avalokiteshvara is part of the very origin myth of the Tibetan people, and seen as the protector deity of Tibet. Many Tibetans believe that the emperor Songtsen Gampo, the Karmapas, and Dalai Lamas are all emanations of Avalokiteshvara. A special Avalokiteshvara image, the Pakpa Lokeshvara, is enshrined at the Potala Palace in Lhasa. In India and Tibet, Avalokiteshvara is understood as male, while in East Asian Buddhism, Avalokiteshvara is often thought of as female, and is known by the Chinese name Guanyin. Avalokiteshvara is recognizable in the Tibetan tradition by the lotus he holds, the image of Buddha Amitabha in his crown, and antelope skin over his shoulder.

In Hinduism, an avatar is a form of a deity. A single god may have many avatars. For instance, Hindus consider Rama, Krishna, and the Buddha to be avatars of the god Vishnu. A similar concept in Buddhism is that of an emanation or nirmanakaya.

Begtse is a wrathful deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. This deity was especially important in Mongolian regions, where he was worshiped as a martial god of a state cult and special protector of Mongolia from the eighteenth century until the Communist period.

Bhairava is a fierce guardian-deity worshiped by both Hindus and Vajrayana Buddhists. Among Hindus, Bhairava is considered a wrathful avatar of Shiva, while among Buddhists, he is considered an emanation of Manjushri. The worship of Bhairava is especially common in the Kathmandu Valley.

In Mahayana Buddhism, Bhaishajyaraja or Bhaishajyaguru is an important buddha who is associated with medicine and healing. Bhaishajyaguru is the teacher who expounds the Tibetan Medical tantras (Tib. Gyu Zhi), which traditional medical doctors memorize to learn the theory and practice of medical science.

In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a being who has made a vow to become a buddha or awakened. In the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, many bodhisattvas are understood as deities with enormous powers who delay their final enlightenment, remaining in the phenomenal world to help suffering beings. Among such great bodhisattvas are Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and Maitreya.

In Hinduism, Brahma is a creator god, one of a trinity along with Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. In Buddhism, Brahma is also understood as a powerful god, although not an enlightened deity, who presides over a heavenly realm and protects the Buddhist teachings. Buddhists often depict Brahma together with Indra, as patrons and supplicants to the Buddha or Buddhist deity, or trampled underfoot, representing negative forces to be overcome.

In Buddhism and Bon, a buddha is understood as a being who practices good deeds for many lifetimes, and finally, through intense meditation, achieves nirvana, or ”awakening”—a state beyond suffering, free from the cycle of birth and death. “The Buddha” of our age is Shakyamuni, or Siddhartha Gautama. He is considered the founding teacher of the religion we call Buddhism. The buddha prior to Shakyamuni was called Dipamkara, and the next buddha will be Maitreya. These are known as Buddhas of the Three Times. Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists believe that there are infinite buddhas in infinite universes, who have many bodies or emanations. Other important buddhas include Amitabha, Vairochana, Bhaishajyaguru, Maitreya, and many more.

Buddha Shakyamuni, or simply “The Buddha,” is an epithet for Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion. While the exact dates of Siddhartha’s life are debated, scholars generally place him in the sixth to fifth century BCE. According to early Buddhist narratives, Siddhartha was born a prince of the Shakya clan in what is now northern India and southern Nepal. Choosing to leave his palace and family for a life as a religious ascetic, Siddhartha achieved enlightenment while meditating under the Bodhi Tree. Siddhartha spent the rest of his life as a wandering teacher, gathering disciples to form the early Buddhist monastic community (sangha). Buddha Shakyamuni is revered all over the Buddhist world today.

This is a group of buddhas that appear in paintings who are also invoked during tantric and offering rituals. The ten directions are the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west; four intermediate directions; and upward and downward directions.

Buddhists believe that there have been innumerable time cycles (kalpas) of creation and destruction of the universe in the past, and there will be innumerable more in the future. These extremely long periods of time are known as eons. The buddha of the past eon was Dipamkara, the buddha of our current era is Shakyamuni, and the buddha of the future eon will be Maitreya. These three are often represented and worshiped together.

A chakravartin is an ideal of Buddhist kingship, a universal ruler who supports the sangha and “turns the wheel of the Dharma.” Since the time of Emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE), the archetypal chakravartin, many Buddhist rulers in history have been praised as chakravartins, or rulers who support Buddhism and help its spread through the expansion of his domains.

A “priest-patron” relationship is one in which a secular ruler supports the Buddhist monastic hierarchy with gifts of land, wealth, and protection, while Buddhist masters perform rituals on behalf of the ruler and the state. This arrangement defined Tibetan Buddhists’ relationships with rulers, including Mongol Khans or the Manchu emperors. The relationship between the Mongol emperor Qubilai Khan and the Tibetan imperial preceptor Pakpa became emblematic of this system.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, dakinis are female deities. Called khandroma “sky-goers” in Tibetan, they are thought to be embodiments of enlightened wisdom and can appear in various forms. In tantric texts and practices, they are described as consorts and sources of wisdom and insight for yogic practitioners. Some dakinis appear wrathful, and are thought to drink blood and visit charnel grounds, where they encounter and instruct tantric practitioners. Tantras and biographies mention them as consorts and sources of enlightening wisdom for yogic practitioners.

The Dalai Lamas are a tulku lineage that has played a central role in Tibetan history for the last five hundred years. In 1577 a Mongol khan gave the Geluk monk Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) the title “Dalai Lama,” combining the Mongolian word for ocean, dalai (a reference to the depth of his knowledge), and the Tibetan word for guru, lama. Later, two previous incarnations were retroactively identified. The fifth incarnation, Ngawang Gyatso (1617–1682), allied with another Mongol khan to unite most of the Tibetan Plateau, forming the Ganden Podrang government that would govern Tibet until 1959. Since the Communist takeover, the current Fourteenth Dalai Lama has lived in exile at Dharamshala in India. The Dalai Lamas are understood to be emanations of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

Different Asian religious traditions posit different types of divine beings. Hindus generally believe in an all-encompassing God-like being, called Brahman. They also believe in a variety of other gods (deva), including Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Early Buddhists denied the existence of a single, all-powerful creator god. Nevertheless, they always recognized a variety of powerful spirits, like gandharvas and nagas. Mahayana Buddhists came to see bodhisattvas as beings of enormous power, and buddhas themselves as cosmic beings with the ability to create entire universes. Buddhist and Bon traditions in Tibet worshiped a variety of other gods (Tib. lha), like the mountain gods, or gods of the land. According to Buddhist tradition, enlightened deities are seen as beyond the cycle of death and rebirth, whereas gods (including Hindu gods) are not.

In Hinduism, the devas are the male gods, like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. “Devi” are goddesses, like Parvati, Sarasvati, or Durga. Buddhists also believe that devas exist as powerful beings, for instance Brahma or Indra, but they do not believe these gods are immortal or enlightened.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, a dharmapala is a wrathful deity who is bound to protect the Buddhist teachings and its followers. Many dharmapalas were originally non-Buddhist deities, who were adopted into the Buddhist pantheon as fierce or wrathful protectors, for instance Bektse or Mahakala. There are many dramatic stories of forced conversion, or pacification of local gods by powerful masters, such as Padmasabhava who were assimilated to become protectors.

Dharmaraja is a term of respect for high Buddhist figures, including the Buddha himself, high-ranking religious masters, and pious rulers.

Dipamkara is considered to be the buddha who appeared in the eon previous to ours. Thus he is often worshiped as one of the Buddhas of the Three Times.

In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.

In Hinduism, Durga is a fierce warrior goddess, sometimes thought to be an aspect of the great goddess Mahadevi, as well as the consort of Shiva. She wields all of the weapons of Hindu gods. Durga’s worship is widespread in the Kathmandu Valley, especially during the fall harvest when Durga rituals abound.

Buddhist monasteries often have images of four fierce Dharma Protectors painted or sculpted on either side of the doors, so as to prevent evil forces from entering the sacred space. They may also protect the gates of a mandala.

The Eight Manifestations of Padmasambhava are eight names of the legendary tantric master and yogin, who became known when he defeated the hostile spirits of Tibet while converting the land and its gods to Buddhism. The names became standardized and assumed iconographic forms now known as the Eight Manifestations of the Guru. Different texts give varied lists of these manifestations.

The Eight Medicine Buddhas are an iconographic set of seven buddhas plus Shakyamuni, who are said to preside over healing and medicine in Tibetan Buddhism.

Ganapati is a name for the South Asian deity recognized by his human body and elephant head. While similar in appearance to a Hindu deity Ganesh, Ganapati is worshiped in some Buddhist contexts, as a deity of good luck and success, or as a wrathful deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Conversely, Ganapati can also represent obstacles to be overcome, and is depicted trampled by some Buddhist deities (such as Mahakala).

In Hinduism, Garuda is a powerful winged deity, often understood as a symbol of victory and the mount of the god Vishnu. In Buddhism, Garuda is thought of less as an individual deity, but instead as powerful, horned eagle-like beings called kyung, who support the Buddhist dharma and protect from nagas, serpent-spirits. In Tibetan contexts garuda is conflated with the horned kyung bird, with ancient roots in Bon beliefs.

Guhya Kali is one form of the Hindu deity Kali, herself seen as a wrathful form of the great goddess Mahadevi. Kali is typically understood as a fierce goddess, pictured devouring her enemies and trampling on their corpses.

In Hinduism, Hayagriva is a deity said to be an avatar of Vishnu, recognizable by his human body and horse’s head. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Hayagriva sometimes appears as a dharma protector, a meditational deity, a heruka, or an attendant to Avalokiteshvara. In Buddhist images he is recognizable by the small horse head(s) protruding from his hair on the top of his head.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, heruka is a designation referred to male wrathful deities, often associated with the sexual practices of the Highest Yoga Tantras, and specifically mother tantras such as Chakrasamvara and Hevajra in the Sakya, Kagyu, and Geluk traditions. Vajrakila and Hayagriva are considered herukas, as well as other male deities of the Nyingma tradition such as Chemckchok and Yangdak Heruka.

Indra is a central deity in the early Hindu Vedas. In later Hinduism, Indra is still considered the king of the gods, but his role is less prominent. In Buddhism, Indra also has the role of king of the gods, although these gods are considered neither enlightened nor immortal.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, Jambhala is a wealth deity. Jambhala is sometimes equated with the Hindu god Kubera, likewise a god of wealth, and king of the yaksha demons.

Jasag Lamas were Buddhist administrative officials of the Qing dynasty appointed to oversee religious communities within monasteries all over the Qing Mongolian world, including places such as Mount Wutai. The first six Jasag Lamas on Mount Wutai were appointed by the Manchu emperors to administer all Tibetan Buddhist and Chinese Buddhist affairs on the mountain. Starting in the early eighteenth century, Jasag Lamas on Mount Wutai were appointed by the Dalai Lamas, acting as ambassadors for Tibetan Buddhist affairs in China. In at least one case, the ruler of Shireet Khuree monastery in southeastern Inner Mongolia, the Jasag Lama secondarily also became the ruler of a secular community.

The Jibzundambas (from the Tibetan Jetsun dampa “venerable/reverend noble one”) were the most important lineage of tulkus in Khalkha Mongolia from 1639 to 1924, considered below only the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas in prestige within the Geluk tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. While the Jibzundamba lineage traces its previous incarnations back to the Tibetan polymath and traveler Taranatha (1575–1634), the first formally enthroned Jibzundampa was the Mongolian prince and artist Zanabazar (1635–1723). As the Jibzundampa’s authority grew, their mobile monastery, called “the great encampment” (Mgl: yekhe khüriye), would gradually settle and develop into Mongolia’s modern capital, Ulaanbaatar. The eighth Jibzundamba ruled as khan of Mongolia from 1911 to 1924.

Jowo is a Tibetan term of respect for a deity, most often referring to an image of the Buddha. The most famous is the Jowo Rinpoche, the main image of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. There are other sacred Jowo images, such as the Jowo at Erdeni juu Monastery in Mongolia.

Kalachakra refers to both the name of major Highest Yoga tantra texts and the central deity, which is the focus of these texts, depicted as a multi-armed figure in tantric union with his consort Vishvamata. The tantra’s elaborate cosmology addresses three wheels of time—the outer, inner, and the other. The outer wheel of time refers to the external world, procession of the external solar and lunar days, or the macrocosm. The inner wheel of time refers to the human body or the microcosm of the inner channels, elements, and wind movements. And the other wheel is the initiation into the paths and the practice. According to the text the Buddha first taught, the Kalachakra tantra in the mythical Buddhist realm of Shambhala to chakravartin kings who rule there.

The Karmapas are a lineage of tulkus, or reincarnated lamas, and heads of the Karma Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, recognizable by their distinctive black hats. They began tracing their reincarnations starting in the thirteenth century when Rangjung Dorje (1284–1339) recognized himself the reincarnation of two predecessors, to whom he gave the titles Second and First Karmapas. The Karmapas are thus the historically oldest tulku lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. The Karmapas were a major force in medieval Tibet, but their economic and political power was broken in the mid-seventeenth century when the Geluk-tradition Dalai Lamas and their Mongol allies defeated the king of Tsang and drove many Karma Kagyupas into exile. Nevertheless, the Karmapa lineage survived, and remains influential today. The Karmapas are believed to be emanations of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

In Hinduism, Kartikeya is a warrior god mounted on a peacock. Kartikeya is especially popular in southern India, where he is known as Murugan. In Buddhism, Kartikeya is often known as Skandha, and is considered an important Dharma Protector. In Nepal, the god is venerated as Kumara, and depicted as a child, either dancing with a peacock or riding one. Kumara is considered to be a harbinger of monsoon rains.

Khutugtu is a Mongolian term of respect for a religious figure, often a buddha or a high lama. The term is equivalent to Tibetan tulku, or incarnate lama. The Jibzundamba and Changkya lineages are often referred to as khutugtus.

In Hinduism and Buddhism, kinnaras are celestial musicians, usually depicted as a male and a female, who are half human and half bird. Kinnaras often appear as attendant figures in depictions of buddha-realms or heavens. In the artistic tradition of Nepal these creatures are known as Jalamanusha, or aquatic man.

In Hinduism, Krishna is considered an avatar of Vishnu, and an important god in his own right. Many stories are told about Krishna’s life, including his childhood as a baby possessed with cosmic powers, his youth as a playful cow herder with many lovers, and his adulthood as a sagely advisor to the epic hero Arjuna. Krishna can be depicted as a baby, or as a young man dancing with a flute. He is usually shown with dark blue skin.

In Hinduism, Kubera is a god of wealth and a king of nature spirits, called yaksha. In Buddhism, he is often equated with the wealth deity Jambhala, and is also one of the eight horsemen-generals in the retinue of the god Vaishravana, the guardian king (lokapala) of the North.

In Nepal, the Kumaris are prepubescent girls who are selected as the incarnation of the great goddess Devi, or the divine feminine principle shakti. These girls live in palaces in the center of Kathmandu and other Nepalese cities, where they perform rituals, bless devotees, and are carried out on palanquins in jatra processions. When the girl experiences her first period, she leaves the palace and resumes life as a normal person, and a new Kumari is selected.

Kurukulla is a wrathful female meditational deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Sometimes associated with Tara, the wrathful deity Heruka or the Buddha Amitabha, Kurukulla is often depicted as a dancing red female deity with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, hook and noose, all made of flowers. In more popular beliefs, Kurukulla is associated with love and power.

In Hinduism, Lakshmi is an important goddess, one of a trinity of goddesses with Parvati and Sarasvati. Lakshmi is considered the consort and divine energy (shakti) of Vishnu. Lakshmi is generally depicted as a peaceful and beautiful woman with four arms. In Nepal, she is considered the goddess of prosperity and wealth and is also known as Shri. Lakshmi appears as a minor goddess in some Buddhist traditions; one of her forms in Tibetan Buddhism is the wrathful protector Palden Lhamo.

In the Tibetan Buddhist and Bon traditions, “lama” is a term of respect for a high monk or religious teacher, often a monastery abbot or a tulku. The Sanskrit equivalent is “guru,” meaning “venerable one” or “teacher.” In some traditions, like the Kagyu, lama is also a person who has completed a three-year retreat practice.

In Buddhism, the lokapalas are four heavenly kings who protect the four cardinal directions. The four guardian kings are:

• Vaishravana (north)
• Virudhaka (south)
• Dhirtarashtra (east)
• Virupaksha (west)

Mahabala is a wrathful deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Often understood as an emanation of Buddha Amitabha, Mahabala is depicted as a red round-bellied man. Mahabala can also sometimes be the name of a dakini, or a minor female deity in Hinduism.

In Hinduism, Mahadevi is the great goddess, the ultimate form of shakti, or the divine female energy. Worshippers of Mahadevi, called “shaktas,” consider her a creator deity equivalent to “Brahman,” or the fundamental basis of reality. Different Hindu traditions consider Kali, Durga, Lakshmi, Parvati, Sarasvati, and all other Hindu goddesses to be aspects of Mahadevi.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, Mahakala is one of the eight great wrathful dharma protectors, a remover of obstacles, both internal and external. Mahakala has many forms, but is generally depicted as a fierce deity with a large belly, dark blue or black in color. One especially important form is the Panjaranatha Mahakala, “Lord of the [Bone] Pavilion,” who was a special protector of the Sakya tradition of Tibetan Buddhism and its imperial Mongol patrons. Forms of Mahakala also appear in Hinduism, where the deity is associated with Bhairava.

Maharaja is an Indian title for a powerful ruler.

In tantric Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, a “siddha” is one who has mastered “siddhis,” or the magical powers that come with yogic practice. The “Great Siddhas” (mahasiddhas) were a semi-mythical group of tantric masters, men and women, who lived in medieval India. They were known for their extraordinary meditative powers, religious poetry, and their transgressive lifestyles, including dwelling in charnel grounds, drinking alcohol, fighting, and having sex. Many Himalayan Vajrayana traditions trace their initiation lineages back to the Mahasiddhas. Depictions of sets of eight, eighty-one, or eighty-four Mahasiddhas are a popular subject in Himalayan art.

Buddhists believe that the universe expands and contracts over endless eons or “kalpas.” Buddhas appear at pre-set times in these eons. The Buddha of our era was Shakyamuni, and the next Buddha to appear will be Maitreya, whose coming will usher in an age of peace. Images of Maitreya are very popular in Buddhist art, either as part of a trinity of Buddhas of the Three Times, or as individual sculptures and paintings often depicting Maitreya standing. Maitreya can be represented both as a bodhisattva and as a buddha.

In Indic mythology, a makara is a mythical crocodile-like creature that lives in rivers and lakes and is generally associated with water. In Himalayan art, certain deities are depicted as riding makaras. More commonly, makaras appear as decorative motifs on either side of gateways, or around the torana. In Newar art of the Kathmandu Valley they represent a rain cloud and appear as aquatic creatures with teeth and a curling elephant trunk-like snout.

Manipas, or manips, are wandering storytellers who performed at pilgrimage sites during religious festivals all over Himalayan regions. In Bhutan, a manipa (as they are known in Bhutan) is a lay priest who recites mantras and other Buddhist texts, and gives popular teachings using miniature portable shrines called Tashi Gomang (The Auspicious Many Doors), and narrative hanging scroll paintings (thangka) as working images to focus their presentations. Very few manipas are active today in Bhutan, but nuns in Tibetan communities of Nepal revived and continue the manipa tradition, which has declined in other areas.

Manjushri is one of the most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Considered the embodiment of wisdom, Manjushri is often recognized by his attributes: a sword which cuts through ignorance and a book, the Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutra. Emanations of Manjushri can also be recognized by these same attributes. Another important Chinese iconographic tradition depicts a youthful Manjushri riding on a lion. This form is associated with Manjushri’s abode on earth, Mount Wutai in China, one of the few Buddhist sites in China visited by Tibetan and Mongol pilgrims among others from all over Asia. Manjushri was seen as the protector deity of China, and the Manchu emperors of the Qing Dynasty who claimed to be emanations of Manjushri emphasized/promoted this association.

In Buddhism, Mara is the demon who was defeated by Buddha Shakyamuni beneath the bodhi tree prior to his enlightenment. Mara is understood as a literal demon, as death, and also as an embodiment of negative forces of desire, hatred and other emotions, and a metaphor of the conditioned existence that leads to death and rebirth in an endless cycle.

Marichi is a deity in Mahayana and Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, associated with the light of dawn, victory, and protection. Marichi has many forms, both peaceful and wrathful. She is often depicted having a yellow or red body, riding on a boar or a chariot pulled by pigs.

In Hinduism, the matrikas are a group of fierce goddesses, each of whom is associated with a mantra seed syllable. These goddesses are often thought of as the female energies (Skt. shakti) of particular male gods. There are usually said to be seven matrikas, corresponding to the seven stars of the Pleiades. In Nepal there are understood to be eight matrikas: Brahmani, Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Indrani, Kaumari, Varahi, Chamunda, and Mahalakshmi.

Mayadevi, or just Maya, was the mother of Siddhartha Gautama, or the Buddha Shakyamuni. According to the stories of the Buddha’s life, Mayadevi conceived the Buddha after a prophetic dream, and gave birth to him through her side in a garden. Seven days later she passed away, and was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods. After awakening, the Buddha traveled to that heaven to share with her his realization and teaching, and then came down on to the human world.

In many Himalayan and Inner Asian cultures some mountains and other natural forces are personified as gods, and mountains are places where gods reside. Tibetans understand some mountains to be mandala-palaces of Bon or Buddhist deities. Other mountains are the homes of fierce warrior-gods who have been tamed and bound by oath to protect Buddhism and the land, for instance Kula Khari, who have the power to harm or grant prosperity to local communities.

Nagas are powerful serpent spirits that live in lakes, rivers, and seas. In Indian religions, including Hinduism and Buddhism, nagas are believed to control rain, and therefore agricultural prosperity. Nagas can be helpful or harmful, and there are many stories and rituals involving them. Indian Buddhist tales about nagas have been assimilated to similar beings in indigenous Tibetan, Chinese, and Mongol mythologies, including Tibetan serpent-spirits (Tib. “lu”) and Chinese dragons (Ch. “long”). A female naga is called a “nagini,” while the kings of the nagas are called “nagarajas.”

Niladanda is a deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, sometimes one of a set of the “Ten Wrathful Ones.” Niladanda is usually depicted as a blue wrathful figure with a staff, sometimes in union with a consort.

Nyen are a type of local spirit in indigenous Tibetan mythology. Nyen are typically fierce and dangerous, but can be tamed by Buddhist or Bonpo masters, and might help those who worship them. Many Tibetan mountain gods are understood to be nyen.

Palden Lhamo, also known as Shri Devi or Remati, is an important deity among wrathful protector goddesses in Tibetan Buddhism, and the only female of the eight great protector deities. Although she is worshiped in many Tibetan Buddhist traditions, she is especially important in the Geluk tradition, and is considered the fierce guardian of the Dalai Lamas, the Ganden Podrang state, and the city of Lhasa. Palden Lhamo takes many different forms, which are considered wrathful forms of different deities. For instance, as Makzor Gyelmo “Queen who Repels Armies” is considered as a wrathful emanation of Sarasvati. Palden Lhamo is usually depicted as a wrathful dark blue figure with flames for hair, riding on a mule with an eye on its rear flank, watching out for enemies of the Dharma. A bag of diseases and divination dice are slung from her saddle.

The Panchen Lamas are an important tulku, or reincarnated lama lineage, in Tibet considered second in prestige within the Geluk tradition only to the Dalai Lamas. The Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682) declared that his tutor Lobzang Chokyi Gyeltsen (1570–1662) was the incarnation of Amitabha and granted him the title Panchen. Three “pre-incarnations” were identified, making Lobzang Chokyi Gyeltsen formally the fourth in the lineage. A special teacher-student relationship exists between the Dalai and Panchen lamas, when one passes away the other takes charge of identifying and educating the new incarnation. The traditional seat of the Panchen Lamas is Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse.

Pandita is an honorary title for a highly learned Buddhist scholar. Tibetans reserve this title for great scholars who were also teachers, for instance Sakya Pandita or the Panchen (“Great Pandita”) Lama tulku lineage.

Parvati is an important goddess in Hinduism. Parvati is the wife of Shiva, and the mother of Ganesha and Skandha. Other groups see her as a central form of the Great Goddess (Mahadevi), and hold that all other goddesses are her avatars, including the wrathful forms known as Kali, Durga, and others. Parvati is often worshiped together with Lakshmi and Sarasvati as part of a trinity of goddesses. Parvati has many iconographic forms, but often appears together with her husband and children.

Pehar is an important protector deity in Tibetan Buddhism. The origins of the deity and the meaning of their name is unclear—legends claim that Pehar was an indigenous spirit tamed by Padmasambhava, or a deity from from Tangut lands in Eastern Central Asia that was defeated and brought to Tibet by the emperor Songtsen Gampo. Pehar is the main deity of the Nechung Oracle, Tibet’s most important state oracle.

Ratnasambhava is a buddha in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. In the Five Buddha Families of the Yoga Tantras, Ratnasambhava is the head of the Jewel Family, his symbolic attribute is a jewel, he is colored yellow, and is associated with the direction south.

Samantabhadra is an important bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. Usually represented mounted on an elephant, Samantabhadra is often depicted as an attendant to Shakyamuni, together with Manjushri. In the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, Samantabhadra is considered to be the Adibuddha, symbolizing the primordial state of awakening or enlightenment.

In Buddhism, the sangha refers to the community of religious practitioners. Buddhists consider the sangha one of the Three Jewels of their religion, along with the Buddha and the Dharma. There are many different branches of the sangha in different Buddhist traditions, including monks in monasteries, nuns in nunneries, and lay-practitioners. Traditionally, most Buddhist monks take vows of chastity, non-violence, and so on at ordination and live studying philosophy, meditating, and carrying out rituals on behalf of the community. In Newar Buddhism, the sangha is formed by household monks and their families. Boys from Vajracharya and Shakya families go through the symbolic rituals of ordination, becoming monks for four days.

In Hinduism, Shakti is the divine female power, considered to be the active, creating agent in the power of the gods. Goddesses like Mahadevi, Kali, Durga, and Parvati are all considered to be aspects of this fundamental force. The traditions that worship these goddesses are called “Shaktism,” and a devotee is called a “Shakta.”

Shiva is a major deity in Hinduism. Aspects of Shiva’s worship arguably date to pre-Vedic and Vedic times. Shiva is often depicted as an ashy-skinned ascetic (Skt. siddha) seated in meditation, with dreadlocks, a trident, and a garland of snakes. Shiva can also be depicted with his wife Parvati, or with one leg elegantly raised as the universe-ending “Lord of the Dance” (Skt. Nataraja). Shiva is often worshiped as “the destroyer” in a trinity with Brahma (“the creator”) and Vishnu (“the preserver”). Hindu traditions that worship Shiva are called “Shaivites.” Shaivite traditions included groups of antinomian meditators who dwelled in charnel grounds, and were important in the early development of tantra.

Sitatapatra is a deity in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. In Himalayan art, Sitatapatra is usually depicted as a white-faced goddess with a thousand arms and heads. The worship of Sitatapatra is associated with particular protective dharani incantations, and is associated with protection, curing diseases, and removing obstacles (to a better rebirth, etc.)

In Mahayana Buddhism, our present age is “fortunate” because a Buddha has appeared in it. The Sixteen Bodhisattvas of the Fortunate eon are a specific group of bodhisattvas of our era, who often appear in the mandalas of the Yoga Tantras.

Takkiraja is a deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Takkiraja is usually depicted as a red wrathful deity holding a hook in one hand and a noose in the other, often united with a consort.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, deities are sometimes portrayed as male and female couples in sexual embrace, called yab-yum (Tib. “Father and Mother”) images. They represent symbolic union of wisdom (female) with active compassion, or method (male), the two necessary elements for achieving awakening. As yidam in Vajrayana and as gods in tantric Hinduism, practitioners visualize these images in meditative deity-yoga, while manipulating the winds, channels, and chakras of the inner “subtle body.” More rarely, tantric union is practiced physically between a yogin and a consort, sometimes as part of an abhisheka initiation.

Tara is an important deity in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Sometimes considered an emanation or consort of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, Tara is known as a savioress who rescues those in peril. Tara has many different peaceful and wrathful forms, but she is often depicted as either green or white. The green form is associated with her limitless activity, and white with granting a long life. The green and white Taras are also associated with, respectively, the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti and the Chinese princess Wencheng, semi-legendary wives of the Tibetan emperor Songtsen Gampo (d. 649 CE), himself said to be an emanation of Avalokiteshvara. In one popular story Tara is said to have vowed to always appear in female form.

Tsenpo is a title, sometimes conventionally translated as “emperor,” used for the rulers of the Tibetan Empire. Songtsen Gampo (d. 649 CE) was the first tsenpo, who unified most of the Tibetan Plateau and founded the Buddhist Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. The last tsenpo of the Tibetan empire was Langdarma (d. 842), an anti-Buddhist king whose assassination by a Buddhist monk sparked civil war, and ultimately the collapse of the Tibetan empire. Later Tibetan rulers who tried to declare themselves inheritors of the Tibetan empire, such as the rulers of the kingdom of Tsongkha in eastern Tibet (eleventh century), also employed this title to strengthen their claims.

In Tibetan Buddhism, a tulku is a lineage of reincarnated lamas. Buddhists believe that sentient beings pass through infinite lives in samsara, reborn in new bodies after each death. Certain highly advanced practitioners are able to control this process, choosing their reincarnation. From the thirteenth century onward, this process became institutionalized in Tibet as a formal means of succession. When a tulku dies, a special team of monks and close disciples performs divinations and other tests to locate a child, who is then enthroned as the new incarnation of the lineage. Over the centuries, many of these lineages amassed immense estates (labrang), and became extremely powerful and prestigious within Tibetan and Mongol society. Important tulku lineages include the Karmapas, the Dalai Lamas, the Panchen Lamas, and the Jibzundambas.

Vairochana is an important buddha in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. In Mahayana, Vairochana is considered the ultimate or Dharma-body of Buddha Shakyamuni. In the Charya and Yoga classes of the Four Classes of Tantra, Vairochana is the primordial Buddha or Adibuddha. In the Five Buddha Families, Vairochana is the head of the Buddha family, colored white, and usually located at the center. Across Asia, Vairochana as the Cosmic Ruler was also a powerful political symbol, and rulers associated themselves with Vairochana to enhance their claims as universal Buddhist sovereigns.

In Buddhism, Vaishravana is the guardian king (lokapala) of the north, one of the four guardian kings who are often found at the entrances to temples. Vaishravana is also sometimes worshiped as a wealth deity and at times as a martial deity. Depending on the emphasis, he is depicted as an armored warrior, often mounted on a lion, carrying a mongoose or holding a stupa/pagoda.

Vajrabhairava is a meditational deity (yidam) and also sometimes a protector deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Vajrabhairava is usually depicted as a blue wrathful deity with the head of a buffalo, sometimes in union with a consort, Vajravetali. Vajrabhairava is a wrathful emanation of Manjushri, whose peaceful head tops his own.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, a Vajracharya is a general term of respect for a teacher or tantric master who gives teachings and abhisheka initiations. In Newar Buddhism, Vajracharya is a specific caste of non-celibate ritual professionals, who make a living performing tantric rituals on behalf of members of the community.

In the later-transmission traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, Vajradhara is considered to be the Adibuddha, the “primordial buddha” or the dharma-body of Buddha Shakyamuni and all other buddhas. Vajradhara is often depicted at the head of transmission lineages, as the source of all teachings, as a blue or white figure wearing a crown and jewelry, holding a vajra and bell crossed at his chest. Teachings about Vajradhara are found in the Highest Yoga Tantras.

Vajrakila is a deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, associated with the dagger (Skt. kila, Tib. purba) used in exorcistic tantric practices described in a meditative and ritual manual called sadhana. Vajrakila is depicted as a blue wrathful deity with wings, sometimes with the lower body of a three-bladed dagger, usually in tantric union with a consort and surrounded by a retinue of animal-headed attendants.

Vajrapani is a bodhisattva and guardian deity in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. One of the oldest Buddhist dharma-protectors (Skt. dharmapala), Vajrapani is said to have protected Buddha Shakyamuni during his career on earth. Vajrapani is often depicted as a wrathful deity with a vajra in one hand, though he also has peaceful forms. Vajrapani is the protector deity of Mongolia, and the Jibzundampa incarnation lineage are said to be his emanations.

Vajrasattva is a bodhisattva in Vajrayana Buddhism. Vajrasattva appears especially in the Yoga Sutras. Vajrasattva is usually depicted as a white seated figure, in tantric union with a consort, and is associated with purification.

Vajrayogini is a female meditational deity in Vajrayana Buddhism. Vajrayogini can appear as the tantric consort of Chakrasamvara, or as an independent deity and an embodiment of power in female form. Vajrayogini is depicted as a red, semi-wrathful dakini wearing bone-ornaments of the charnel grounds, bearing small fangs, often drinking blood from a skull-cup. An important form/emanation of Vajrayogini is Vajravarahi, “The Vajra-Sow,” readily identifiable by the sow’s head projecting from her own, which is symbolism related to the rooting out of the ego. Machik Labdron (1055–1153), one of the most prominent female masters in Tibetan Buddhism, is believed to be and often represented as an emanation of Vajrayogini.

Vasudhara is a goddess of wealth and prosperity in Vajrayana Buddhism, worshiped especially among Newar Buddhists in Nepal. In India and Tibet, she is typically depicted in her two-armed form, and among the Newars her six-armed manifestation is prevalent.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, Vidyadhara is a term of respect for an accomplished master of yogic meditation, one who can transmit important tantric initiations.

Vishnu is an important god in Hinduism, whose worship dates back to the time of the ancient Rigveda (second millennium BCE). Vishnu is often revered as “The Preserver” in a trinity with Brahma (“The Creator”) and Shiva (“The Destroyer”). Vishnu is said to have many avatars, including Krishna and (according to Hindus) the Buddha. Vishnu’s wife is Lakshmi, and he is often shown to ride on Garuda. Vishnu is usually depicted as a blue peaceful man, often standing on a lotus in the primordial ocean. In his four-armed form, he holds a wheel (Skt. chakra), mace (Skt. gada), conch shell (Skt. shankha), and lotus seed (Skt. padma).

In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Bon, some gods and deities are shown with flaming hair, bulging eyes, mouths showing fangs, adorned with garlands of severed heads, and trampling enemies, real or metaphorical. In Tantric Buddhism, such deities are said to be wrathful manifestations of wisdom and method who assume fierce appearance to protect, remove or overcome mental afflictions blocking the path to enlightenment. Others are unenlightened, indigenous gods bound by oath to protect Buddhist traditions. Some female deities, or dakinis, like Vajrayogini, appear as semi-wrathful, in beatific form but bearing small fangs. In the Bon tradition, similarly to Tibetan Buddhism, wrathful deities can be emanations or represent local gods and sprits. In Hindu traditions, gods and goddesses can appear fierce, holding many weapons meant to overcome demons.

Yasodhara was the wife of Siddhartha Gautama, better known as Buddha Shakyamuni. Married to the future Buddha at the age of sixteen, Yasodhara was the mother of his son, Rahula. The Buddha abandoned Yasodhara when he left to pursue a life of meditation and asceticism.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, a yidam is a deity or buddha with whom the meditator connects as part of a deity yoga practice. Practitioners take tantric vows (Tib. damtsik) as part of abhisheka initiations, followed by oral instruction from a master, which permit them to perform meditations in which they visualize themselves becoming the deity described in a particular tantra, and gaining that deity’s enlightened or wrathful powers.