Glossary

In the Himalayan context, iconography refers to the forms found in religious images, especially the attributes of deities: body color, number of arms and legs, hand gestures, poses, implements, and retinue. Often these attributes are specified in ritual texts (sadhanas), which artists are expected to follow faithfully.

Iconometry means the measurement of icons or religious images. Especially in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, detailed manuals exist that use precise proportional measurements to standardize the iconography of major deities, and maintain their correct proportions, regardless of scale. These proportions are commonly expressed visually in artist manuals as iconometric grids.

An illuminated manuscript is one that is adorned with images, designs, and decorative text. Unlike an “illustrated” text, the images in an illuminated text don’t necessarily show scenes from the story of the text.

Impermanence is a core concept in Buddhism. The Buddha taught that all beings, things, and thoughts are constantly appearing, changing, and passing away in samsara. We suffer because we are attached to these unstable things. In Madhyamaka philosophy, impermanence is a central part of the doctrine of emptiness.

Hindus and Buddhist believe that all beings die and are reborn in new bodies, or “incarnations.” While reincarnation is recognized across the Buddhist world, in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, some important teachers (lamas) are thought to be able to control this process. Their successive incarnations, known as tulkus (emanation bodies), formed incarnation lineages such as Dalai Lamas, Panchen Lamas, Karmapas, and others.

Buddhism was founded among the royal cities and forest hermitages of northern India in the sixth to fourth centuries BCE. All three major Buddhist doctrinal groups—Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana—had their origins in India. Pilgrims from across Asia would travel to India to visit the sacred sites of the Buddha’s life, or study in the great monastic universities of Nalanda or Vikramashila. From the sixth century CE onward, Buddhism faced increasing competition from Hindu devotional and tantric groups. Muslim invasions and conversions from the eighth century onward destroyed many of the great monasteries. By the end of the thirteenth century, Buddhism had mostly vanished in its homeland, although isolated Buddhist groups survived in peripheral areas. Newar Buddhists continue to practice a form of Indian Buddhism to this day.

Indra is a central deity in the early Hindu Vedas. In later Hinduism, Indra is still considered the king of the gods, but his role is less prominent. In Buddhism, Indra also has the role of king of the gods, although these gods are considered neither enlightened nor immortal.

Inlay is a decorative technique of creating a depression in a surface and then filling it with some other material. Metal can be inlaid with precious stones or glass, or more precious forms of metal, for instance, brass inlaid with silver and copper. Wood can be inlaid with silver, or other metal and conch. Tibetans tend to favor turquoise inlay while the Newars employ a range of colored glass and semi-precious stones.

Inner Asia is a broad geographic term referring to diverse Mongolian regions including present-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Buryatia, Tuva, and ancient territories traditionally occupied by Tangut and Manchu people, as well as areas of Western China. In some contexts Tibetan regions are also considered part of Inner Asia.

Islam is a major world religion. Islam is based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammed (570–632 CE), who claimed a direct revelation from God (Arabic: “Allah”) contained in a sacred text called the Quran, which details a code of conduct for believers. By the end of the twelfth century Islam was prevalent in most of Central Asia and Northern India, leading to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism in these regions. Today, parts of the western Himalayas (Kashmir and northern Pakistan) are majority Muslim. Muslims live as minorities in many other parts of the Himalayan world, including historically important trading communities on the Tibetan Plateau.