Glossary

An abhisheka is a consecration or anointment ritual. In Vajrayana Buddhism, abhisheka rituals are performed to initiate practitioners into the practices focused on a certain deity. These ceremonies often involve anointing the heads of practitioners with water, meditative visualizations, making vows, chanting mantras and being introduced into a mandala. Hindu priests perform abhisheka rituals on statues, either to invite the deity to reside there, or to wash the statue and worship the deity that inhabits it. Historically, abhishekas were also performed to coronate Hindu kings.

The Avatamsaka Sutra is an important sutra in Mahayana Buddhism, known for its philosophical exploration of infinite, mutually reflecting universes. The final section of this very long sutra is called the Gandavyuha. This section tells the story of a pilgrim named Sudhana who visits fifty-three teachers on his journey to enlightenment, which became exemplary of Buddhist pilgrims’ religious quest.

In Buddhism, awakening or enlightenment refers to a state of understanding the nature of reality, which Buddha Shakyamuni attained while meditating under the Bodhi Tree at Vajrasana or Bodhgaya. It is called awakening because a person reaching such understanding “wakes up” from an illusion—perceiving everything and oneself as real, unchanging, and existing independently of everything else. See also nirvana.

Bhimaratha is a communal ceremony performed by the Newar people of the Kathmandu valley to celebrate the date when an elder turns seventy-seven years, seven months, and seven days old. During the ceremony, the elder and his or her spouse are pulled through the streets in a chariot by their children, whereby they are “deified” in the community. Artworks are often commissioned to commemorate the event.

Bon is an indigenous religion of Tibet. Originally, Bon were a group of non-Buddhist ritual specialists in the court of the Tibetan emperors. From the eleventh century onward, an organized religion called Yungdrung Bon, or “Eternal Bon,” took shape. Yungdrung Bon developed in dialogue with Buddhism, incorporating deities called buddhas, scriptures modeled on the Buddhist canon, monks, and the establishment of monasteries. Followers of Yungdrung Bon trace their own origins to a founder called Tonpa Shenrab, who arrived from the semi-mythical land of Zhangzhung in western Tibet. The word “Bon” can also refer to the many non-organized indigenous religious practices, including the worship of mountain deities and making namkha. A follower of Bon is called a Bonpo.

In the Yoga Tantras, practitioners are initiated into one of five Buddha families, which together form a mandala. Each family has a name, buddha, color, direction, and symbolic attribute:

• Buddha family, Vairocana, white, center, wheel
• Karma family, Amoghasiddhi, green, north, crossed vajra or sword
• Lotus family, Amitabha, red, west, lotus
• Jewel family, Ratnasambhava, yellow, south, jewel
• Vajra family, Akshobhya, blue, east, vajra

Each of the five directional buddhas also represents a specific wisdom quality, which overcomes a corresponding mental affliction.

Buddhism is founded on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who lived sometime between the sixth and fourteenth century BCE in northern India. Buddhists believe that sentient life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of awakening or nirvana, it is possible to escape this cycle. Buddhists refer to the Buddha’s teachings as the Dharma. There are many different traditions or denominations of Buddhism, including Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Scholars also discuss regional traditions, such as Indian Buddhism, Newar Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, and so on.

Wheels are an important symbol in Buddhism, which often refers to the Buddha’s teachings as “turning the wheel of the Dharma.” When depicted in the hands of a deity or human, a wheel can also denote political power, symbolizing the chakravartin or universal ruler. In the Hindu tradition, the chakra is an ancient weapon, carried by gods such as Vishnu. Chakras can also refer to focal points in the human body; in both Hindu and Buddhist systems of yogic meditation, practitioners channel the energies of the body through these points to obtain higher states of consciousness.

Chakrasamvara is the name of one of the Highest Yoga tantras. Chakrasamvara is also the name of the central deity of the tantra, along with his consort Vajravarahi. Like other tantras of its class, the Chakrasamvara tantra contains transgressive imagery of wrathful deities, charnel grounds, and deities in sexual embrace.

Cham is a type of ritual dance performed in Tibetan Buddhism, often at holidays like the new year or the Monlam Chenmo prayer festival. The cham dancers, who are usually monks, put on masks and perform the actions of the deities they portray. Often these dancers are understood to “become” the deities. The dances often have an exorcistic function and generally are performed for the benefit of an entire community.

Buddhism first appeared in China in the first century CE, and by the fourth century had become one of the major religions of the country, along with Daoism and Confucianism. Essentially all Chinese Buddhism is Mahayana; Vajrayana teachings flourished for a brief period in the eighth century, but suffered repression and mostly disappeared as an organized school of practice, except in the southwest. Chan (Zen) Buddhism is a unique Chinese tradition, known for its teachings on sudden enlightenment, some of which parallel teachings of Dzogchen (the Great Perfection) practiced in Tibetan regions. Other Chinese Buddhists follow Pure Land teachings, hoping to be reborn in the western paradise of Amitabha.

Chod is a ritual technique in the Nyingma and Kagyu traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as in Bon. In a Chod ritual, the practitioner visualizes dismembering of his or her body and offering it to demons. This method is “cutting through” or destroying the ego, which is the primary impediment to awakening (enlightenment).

Circumambulation means walking around something. Himalayan Buddhists often circumambulate as a form of veneration and generate/accrue merit by walking in a clockwise direction around stupas, monasteries, or sacred mountains. Bonpos do the same thing, except counter-clockwise.

In most Asian religious traditions, when an image of a deity is made, it must be made sacred (“consecrated”) by inviting the deity to inhabit it. A variety of rituals can be involved in this, including dotting the image’s eyes, visualizing the descent of the deity into the image, writing mantras on the back of a thangka, or placing sacred texts and mantras inside of a statue.

Daoism refers both to a philosophical tradition and to an organized religion. In ancient China, texts attributed to semi-mythical figures like Laozi (sixth–fourth century BCE) and Zhuangzi (369–286 BCE) contained mystical speculation about the “way” (Dao) that brings humans into harmony with heaven, as well as explorations of philosophical and political relativism. From the second century onward, a ritual-exorcistic tradition appeared that called itself “the teachings of the Dao” (Ch. Daojiao). Mutually influencing with Chinese Buddhism, this tradition grew into an organized religion with monasteries, a priesthood, a canon of ritual texts, and a complex pantheon of gods organized into a bureaucracy modeled after the Chinese state which govern the natural world.

In Indian religious traditions, darshan means a glimpse or sight of the deity, often during pilgrimage, visit to the temple, or when the deity is brought out from a temple during a festival. It is believed that in these encounters, the deity also sees the worshipper via the consecrated statue. In Buddhist traditions, darshan is often interpreted as blessing, and sometimes can also refer to a meditative visualization or vision of a buddha or deity.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, deity yoga is a meditative visualization practice centered on a deity. Practitioners imagine themselves as a deity (Tib. yidam), or visualize the deity in front of themselves, while contemplating and internalizing the deity’s enlightened qualities of mind and powers. As a result, the practitioners develop a special connection with the deity and attain the deity’s awakened state. Specific instructions on the practice of deity yoga are laid out in tantras, and in texts called sadhana.

In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, a dharani is a short, Sanskrit language text or spell-like formulas thought to have protective power when written or recited out loud, often as part of a ritual. Often inscribed on objects or at sacred sites, their power through the written physical presence is associated with long life, purification, and protection. Dharanis are similar to mantras, but usually longer. One important dharani is the Ushnishavijaya Dharani. The Pancharaksha is another important text that contains five dharanis of protection.

In Buddhism, dharma refers to the teachings of the Buddha, and to the Buddhist religion itself. In Hinduism, dharma means law, custom, morality, or a way of doing things. The word has other contextual meanings in different Indian religious traditions.

Divination refers to any supernatural means of knowing the world, including oracles, astrology, and geomancy (the study of forces in the landscape).

Dzogchen refers to ritual practices and philosophical texts associated with the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Bon. Dzogchen texts emphasize yogic practices, techniques for navigating the bardo states between birth and death, and the nature of the universe as pure, self-arisen consciousness.

In deity yoga, meditative practices usually begin with the “generation stage” (Tib. kyerim), in which the practitioner enters a state of deep concentration and then visualizes the deities of the ritual. This is then followed by the “completion stage,” in which the practitioner resides in the pure expanse of enlightenment and performs various activities as the deity.

Along with the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path is a core part of the teachings of Buddha Shakyamuni. The Eightfold Path is often symbolized by an eight-spoked wheel or chakra. The eight spokes represent: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right efforts, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Emptiness is a core concept of the Madhyamaka philosophical tradition of Mahayana Buddhism, most famously formulated by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna (ca. second to third century CE) and elaborated by Chandrakirti (c. seventh century CE). Emptiness (Skt. shunyata) refers to the absence of inherent existence, meaning that although all things, including the self, exist insofar as we perceive them, they are constantly changing and dependent on causes and conditions, and thus empty of inherent existence. Buddhas are said to perceive both of these relative and absolute truths at once. Other Buddhist traditions, for instance Dzogchen and the Jonang, interpret emptiness as a primordial state of radiant awareness underlying the phenomenal world.    

Along with the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths comprise the fundamental teachings of Buddha Shakyamuni and refer to: suffering (all life is suffering); origination (desire, anger, and ignorance are the causes of suffering); cessation (Nirvana ends all suffering); and path (the Eightfold Path leads to this ending).

The Geluk are the most recent of the major “Later Diffusion” traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Founded on the teachings of Tsongkhapa (1357–1419 CE) and his students, the Geluk are known for their emphasis on monastic discipline and the scholastic study of Mahayana philosophy, especially Madhyamaka. In the seventeenth century the Geluk supporting the Dalai Lamas became the largest and most powerful Buddhist tradition in both Tibet and Mongolia, where city-sized Geluk monasteries and their satellites proliferated widely. For long periods, Geluk monks effectively ruled both countries in dual-rulership or priest-patron political systems. A follower of the Geluk is called a Gelukpa.

The Guhyasamaja is an important tantra in Vajrayana Buddhism, which focuses on a form of the buddha Akshobhya called Akshobhyavajra, also known as Guhyasamaja. Like other Highest Yoga Tantras, the Guhyasamaja tantra uses transgressive imagery of wrathful deities, charnel grounds, and sexual union.

The Four Tantras are the fundamental text of the Tibetan medical tradition, claimed to have been taught by the Buddha himself. The first tantra or “root” tantra contains an overview of the medical system, while the second or “explanatory” gives more detail on theory and physiology. The third or “instructional” tantra gives information on treatments, while the fourth or “subsequent” tantra gives a variety of additional information on diagnosis, the preparation of medicines, and more.

The Hevajra tantra is one of the most important texts of the Highest Yoga Tantras. The Lamdre teachings of the Sakya tradition of Tibetan Buddhism are mostly based on the Hevajra tantra. Hevajra is also the name of the central deity of the tantra, who is usually depicted in union with his consort Nairatmya. The deity is recognizable by the series of skull cups containing various animals held in his hands.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, the Highest Yoga Tantras are the highest category in the fourfold division of tantras. These tantras often involve images of male and female deities in sexual union, symbolic of two aspects of wisdom and method necessary for the awakening. Such practices are sometimes literally carried out by the initiated practitioner and a consort. Most Tibetan traditions also divide Highest Yoga Tantras into “father” tantras, which focus on male deities and the subtle body, and “mother” tantras, which focus on female deities and the enlightened mind. The Later Diffusion traditions add a category of “non-dual” tantras, the most important of which is the Kalachakra tantra. The Nyingma tradition understands Dzogchen as the ultimate form of the Highest Yoga Tantras.

Hinduism is a collection of religious beliefs and practices comprising a major Asian religion, practiced principally on the Indian Subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. Although certain practices may have their roots in the ancient Indus Valley civilization (~3300–1300 BCE), the earliest decipherable texts of Hinduism are the Vedas, ritual-mythological hymns and instructions for fire-sacrifice from around 1500–900 BCE. From around 800 to 300 BCE, new thinkers emphasized philosophical ideas like ritual union with the deity Brahman, or meditation and asceticism in the forest. One of these thinkers was Siddhartha Gautama, the founding teacher of Buddhism. Hindu temples appeared from the medieval period onward, dedicated to gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and Mahadevi. There are also tantric forms of Hinduism, which emphasize transgressive practices and yogic ritual.

Impermanence is a core concept in Buddhism. The Buddha taught that all beings, things, and thoughts are constantly appearing, changing, and passing away in samsara. We suffer because we are attached to these unstable things. In Madhyamaka philosophy, impermanence is a central part of the doctrine of emptiness.

Hindus and Buddhist believe that all beings die and are reborn in new bodies, or “incarnations.” While reincarnation is recognized across the Buddhist world, in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, some important teachers (lamas) are thought to be able to control this process. Their successive incarnations, known as tulkus (emanation bodies), formed incarnation lineages such as Dalai Lamas, Panchen Lamas, Karmapas, and others.

Buddhism was founded among the royal cities and forest hermitages of northern India in the sixth to fourth centuries BCE. All three major Buddhist doctrinal groups—Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana—had their origins in India. Pilgrims from across Asia would travel to India to visit the sacred sites of the Buddha’s life, or study in the great monastic universities of Nalanda or Vikramashila. From the sixth century CE onward, Buddhism faced increasing competition from Hindu devotional and tantric groups. Muslim invasions and conversions from the eighth century onward destroyed many of the great monasteries. By the end of the thirteenth century, Buddhism had mostly vanished in its homeland, although isolated Buddhist groups survived in peripheral areas. Newar Buddhists continue to practice a form of Indian Buddhism to this day.

Islam is a major world religion. Islam is based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammed (570–632 CE), who claimed a direct revelation from God (Arabic: “Allah”) contained in a sacred text called the Quran, which details a code of conduct for believers. By the end of the twelfth century Islam was prevalent in most of Central Asia and Northern India, leading to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism in these regions. Today, parts of the western Himalayas (Kashmir and northern Pakistan) are majority Muslim. Muslims live as minorities in many other parts of the Himalayan world, including historically important trading communities on the Tibetan Plateau.

Jatakas are a genre of Buddhist literature about the previous lives, or incarnations, of Buddha Shakyamuni, sometimes as an animal before he attained enlightenment. With lively stories that illustrate the importance of compassion and cultivating karmic merit, these stories are a favorite topic of Buddhist illustration.

In Nepal, a jatra is a festival procession, in which an image of a deity is carried through the streets on elaborate chariots, often accompanied by music, dance, and offering rituals. Important jatras include those for Indra, Kumari, and Bunga Dya.

The Jonang are a tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Founded by Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen (1292–1361), it is sometimes considered an offshoot of the Sakya tradition. Best known for the great scholar Taranatha (1575–1634), the Jonang emphasize the teachings of the Kalacakra Tantra, and are known for a unique interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness, which holds that all human concepts are empty of inherent nature, but the true substance of the universe is pure, radiant Buddhahood. The Jonang were suppressed by the Fifth Dalai Lama in the mid-seventeenth century in central Tibet, but the tradition survives in the Dzamtang region of Amdo, Eastern Tibet. A follower of the Jonang is called a Jonangpa.

The Kadam were a tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, the earliest of the “later diffusion” traditions in Tibet. Founded on the teachings of the famous Indian scholar Atisha (982–1054) and his student Dromton (1005–1064), the Kadam emphasized monastic discipline, Buddhist ethics, Mahayana scriptural study, and madhyamaka philosophy. Many later Tibetan traditions grew out of Kadam lineages, to the point that the Kadam no longer existed as an organized tradition. The Geluk tradition, founded by Tsongkhapa (1257–1419) views itself as the intellectual successor to the Kadam, and sometimes calls itself the “New Kadam.”

The Kagyu are a major Later Diffusion tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. The Kagyu trace their lineages back to the Mahasiddhas, the great tantric masters of medieval India. The Kagyu are known for their yogic practices, as well as the teaching of Mahamudra, or the “Great Seal.” The Kagyu tradition includes many different branches, such as the Karma, Drukpa, Drigung, Tselpa, Pakmodru, and others. The most influential leaders of the Karma Kagyu are the Karmapas, a tulku lineage associated with that Kagyu branch. In Bhutan, the Drukpa Kagyu tradition serves as the state religion. A follower of the Kagyu is called a Kagyupa.

Hinduism and Buddhism both hold that actions (Skt. karma) have inevitable results which may take a shorter or longer time to occur. Mental, verbal, and physical actions all have positive or negative consequences and are considered karma. Depending on conditions, karma can manifest results either in this or future lives. Karma directly relates to the idea of reincarnation, and positive karma can also create religious merit and lead to a better rebirth, while negative actions, or karma, result in worse experiences in the present and future lives. Buddhists strive to achieve enlightenment to escape this cycle of karmic action and consequence.

Lamdre is a set of teachings and practices foundational to the Sakya tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, which outlines the paths and results of studying philosophical teachings and actualizing Buddhist practices. Although largely focused on Hevajra Tantra, the Lamdre teachings begin with the Mahayana path and Madhyamaka philosophy, which holds that samsara and nirvana are aspects of the same reality. More advanced Lamdre teachings involve the initiations and deity yoga of the Hevajra Tantra. The depiction of Lamdre lineage masters, teachings, and initiations passed unbroken from teacher to disciple are important aspect of Sakya religious art.

Lu is an ancient class of Tibetan exorcistic rituals in which one object is substituted for another. Often, negative forces affecting a person are enticed to enter an effigy (torma), which is then burned or discarded.

Madhyamaka is a philosophical school within Mahayana Buddhism, usually associated with the thinker Nagarjuna (second–third century CE). Madhyamaka proposes a “middle way” between positivism (things exist) and nihilism (nothing exists), arguing that things exist provisionally insofar as we experience them, but are empty of inherent, enduring nature. In this construction, the phenomenal world and enlightenment are perceptual aspects of the same reality. All Tibetan Buddhist traditions study Madhyamaka philosophy, but it forms the central part of the monastic curriculum of Geluk tradition.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, Mahamudra refers to an awakened state that is non-conceptual and contains all phenomena of samsara and nirvana, and also to a path leading to this awareness through meditation. Mahamudra teachings are traced back to the great Indian mahasiddhas, Maitripa, Tilopa, and Naropa, who transmitted the teachings to Tibetan masters, including Marpa, the translator, and Milarepa, the poet-yogi who lived a famously unconventional life. The transmission lineage depicting these masters often occupies upper registers of Tibetan thangkas. Mahamudra is one of the two central teachings (along with the Six Dharmas of Naropa) in the Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism and other Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

Mahayana is a Buddhist movement, which formed in India around the first century CE. Mahayana followers articulated their goal of achieving buddhahood, or awakening, as the means to help all living beings, which is known as bodhicitta. Mahayana sutras such as Prajnaparamita, Avatamsaka, The Lotus Sutra, and others represent this goal in their narratives and explain how to reach it in their philosophical propositions. These texts introduced the idea of infinite buddhas in infinite intersecting universes and powerful bodhisattvas with the ability to intercede in human affairs. Mahayana philosophy emphasizes the teachings on emptiness, according to the Madhyamaka school and the ethical practices in the context of the bodhicitta. In Himalayan Buddhist traditions, Mahayana is considered the foundation for Vajrayana practices. Along with Theravada and Vajrayana it comprises the Three Vehicles of Buddhist paths. Mahayana teachings are also practiced today in China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

In Hinduism and Buddhism, mantras are short syllables or phrases that are thought to have power. Mantras may be chanted by devotees as part of daily practice, or pronounced during rituals to invoke the deity’s power. In tantric Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, practitioners perform meditative deity-yoga by first visualizing “root” or “seed” syllables, and then generating the yidam deities out of these mantras during the process known as visualization.

Meditation is a central practice of many Asian religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Bon, and Daoism. There are many forms of meditation. One kind of meditation involves clearing the mind, focusing on breathing, and generating feelings of compassion towards all living beings. Other types of meditation involve concentrating on and internalizing philosophical concepts. In Vajrayana Buddhism, an important type of meditation practice is visualization, such as deity-yoga, in which the meditator visualizes themselves becoming the deity, aspiring to take on their enlightened qualities while performing ritual activities.

In Buddhism, merit is accumulated positive karma, or positive actions, that lead to positive results, such as better rebirths. Buddhists gain merit by reciting mantras, donating to monasteries and those in need, performing pilgrimages, commissioning artworks, reproducing and reciting Buddhist texts, and other deeds with good intentions. It is believed that merit can also be transferred to others through rituals performed to gain merit for deceased family members help them achieve a better rebirth. Merit making is an important motivation for positive ritual action, and is a prerequisite for success of religious and even secular activity.

In Hinduism and Buddhism, mudras are ritual hand gestures made by deities, Buddhas, and other sacred figures. These hand gestures are important and relatively standardized parts of deities’ iconographies. Mudras are also performed by practitioners during rituals, allowing them to take on the bodily attributes of the deities.

The Newar People of the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal retain the unbroken traditions of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism south of the Himalayas, preserving many ritual practices and Sanskrit-language texts that have been lost elsewhere. Celibate monasticism is no longer practiced among the Newars, but instead Buddhist ritualists are divided into two castes. One is the Shakyas, temple-priests who maintain ancient urban monasteries (Newar: bahas, bahis) as places of worship. The other is the Vajracharyas, tantric specialists who perform rituals at communal festivals and important life events. The Svayambhu Stupa is the most important ritual center for Newar Buddhists and the center of the Kathmandu Mandala. Today many Newars also practice Theravada and Tibetan Buddhism.

Nirvana is said to be a state beyond the cycle of reincarnation (Skt. samsara). It is defined as the end of suffering of being born, living, dying, and being reborn, and the ultimate goal for Buddhist practitioners. The Buddha achieved this state meditating beneath the bodhi tree, and his followers aim to advance to that state by gradually clearing out their karmic limitations. Different Buddhist traditions variously characterize nirvana, indicting several levels of awakening, from achieving peace to utterly transcending both the suffering of samsara and the peace of nirvana.

The Pancharaksha is a Vajrayana Buddhist text that provides five dharani spells for protection against worldly harm. These five dharanis are also personified as five goddesses who are worshiped as guardian deities. The Pancharaksha text and deities are most popular in Nepal, where many households keep copies of this text and images of the goddesses. They were also employed in Tibetan, Tangut, and Chinese contexts to protect the state, prevent suffering, diseases, and drought.

In Buddhism, individuals become awakened or achieve enlightenment (nirvana) but continue to live out the remainder of their natural lives. They pass on into the final state at their deaths, called “parinirvana.” Most importantly, this term refers to the Buddha Shakyamuni’s parinirvana at Kushinagara when he lay down between two trees and died. The event accompanied by many miracles is one of the Eight Great Events and one of the Twelve Deeds of the Buddha’s life, and is a very common topic for Buddhist illustration.

The Prajnaparamita sutras are fundamental early Mahayana texts dating from the first few centuries of the common era. These writings propound a Madhyamaka philosophical view, which sees reality as impermanent and empty of true nature. Prajnaparamita texts continued to be important in the early Vajrayana tradition, in which Prajnaparamita was personified as a goddess seen to embody wisdom. She is usually depicted a goddess of yellow color usually with four arms, one of which holds a book representing this sutra.

In Buddhist philosophical thinking, pratityasamutpada is an explanation of the continuous processes of causation that create the cycle of rebirths. A simple explanation of pratityasamutpada is that no thing or thought exists eternally and of itself; everything that exists arises in dependence on causes and conditions, and passes away, producing further effects. Buddhist logic posits twelve links in this cycle of causation, beginning with ignorance and ending with death. These links are depicted as the outer circular band in the Wheel of Life paintings.

The Rigveda is the oldest section of the Indian Vedas, and the oldest texts of the religion now called Hinduism. Written in Sanskrit sometime in the second millennium BCE, the Rigveda consists of poetic hymns to the early Hindu gods, including Indra, Agni, Vishnu, and others. Also important is soma, an intoxicating drink that allows the Vedic sages to directly contact the gods. Hindus still read the Vedic hymns today, making it probably the oldest continuously used religious text in the world. For scholars, the Rigvedas are a crucial window into the very early stages of Indic society and religion.

In Buddhism and Hinduism, sadhana is any yogic or meditative practice that leads towards enlightenment. Sadhana also refers to a particular type of text that gives practical instructions for how the practitioner should go about performing the rituals and visualizations, including detailed descriptions of the deities’ iconography and their mandala.

In Buddhism and Hinduism, samsara is the phenomenal world in which we live, and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. In Buddhism, samsara refers to the six realms of existence in which beings can be born according to their karma: as hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, demi-gods (Skt. asura), and gods. The central goal of Buddhism is to escape the suffering of samsara by achieving nirvana, a state beyond this cycle of rebirths.

In Buddhism and Hinduism, certain sacred objects are said to be “self-arisen,” that is, appearing out of the landscape spontaneously or by the power of the deities. For instance, at the center of the Kathmandu Mandala is the Svayambhu (Skt. “Self-Arisen”) Stupa, said to have appeared at that place eons before humans came there and adorned it. Other “self-arisen” objects can be stones that look like deities or vajras, mountains in the shape of auspicious symbols, etc. In Tibet, self-arisen objects are also a special class of relics, such as images that appear after the cremation of an accomplished religious master.

Sutras are written down words spoken by the Buddha Shakyamuni, narrated by his disciples. Sutra texts comprise the foundation of the textual canon of all Buddhist traditions. Sutras generally begin with the words, “Thus have I heard,” and continue to describe the place, time, and context in which the Buddha gave the teaching. Important Mahayana sutras include the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Prajnaparamita Sutras, as well as many others. Other important types of Buddhist text are avadanas, dharanis, as well as tantras.

The swastika is an ancient Eurasian symbol, found in rock carvings since prehistoric times. In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Bon, the swastika is a common and auspicious decorative design, symbolizing the motions of the sun, the wheel of reincarnation, and the eternal nature of the teachings. In Tibetan, it is yungdrung (“Eternal”), the principal religious symbol of the Bon religion, and the organized system of Bon that emerged in dialogue with Buddhism is generally referred to as Yungdrung Bon. The strongly negative association of this design in Western countries is due to its appropriation by the twentieth-century Nazis as a symbol of their racial theories.

Tantra was a religious movement in India around the fifth to seventh centuries, and its practices are part of Buddhism and Hinduism. The word tantra also refers to texts which transmit tantric practices. In Buddhism, tantra is also called Vajrayana, “The Vajra Vehicle.” Tantric ritual and art are characterized by deity yoga, mandalas, mantras, abhisheka (initiation), wrathful deities, and ritual sexual union. In Hinduism, tantrism was often associated with the worship of Shiva and various goddesses (shakti). A practitioner of tantra is called a “tantrika.” Tantra is also a genre of texts that have been variously categorized. Most common is the division of tantras into four categories: Kriya Tantra, Charya Tantra, Yoga Tantra, and Highest Yoga Tantra.

The Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism holds that gurus of the past like Padmasambhava concealed texts, objects, and even hidden lands (Tib. beyul) throughout the Himalayan landscape, meant for later generations to discover at the time the teachings are needed. Tantric practitioners and yogis who discover these treasures are called terton, or “treasure revealers.” Treasure revealers can also uncover “mind-treasures,” revealed to them by deities or lineage masters in dreams and visions. There are treasure-revealers in the Bon tradition as well.

In Mahayana Buddhism, every buddha is thought to have three bodies. The dharma body (dharmakaya) is the primordial, empty, true nature of all buddhas. The enjoyment body (sambhogakaya) is the buddha as he exists in his exalted pure realm and mandala, surrounded by bodhisattvas. In images, these bodies can be recognized by their jewel ornaments and crown (like Amitayus). The emanation bodies (nirmanakaya) are the innumerable forms or manifestations of the buddhas who appear in the world or on earth in order to teach sentient beings the path to freedom from suffering. In images, emanation bodies can often be recognized by their monk’s robes (like Amitabha).

Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists hold that Buddha Shakyamuni gave three main sets of teachings during his career on earth, poetically described as the “three turnings of the wheel of the Dharma.” The three turnings sketch an intellectual history of Buddhism:

1. The first turning was the teachings on the Four Noble Truths.
2. The second turning was the Mahayana teachings, including on the bodhisattva path, the Prajnaparamita Sutras, and the Madhyamaka teachings on emptiness.
3. The third turning of the wheel was the Yogachara philosophy teachings on the innate enlightenment of all beings, and some of the Vairayana tantras as well.

Historically, Tibetan Buddhism refers to those Buddhist traditions that use Tibetan as a ritual language. It is practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Ladakh, and among certain groups in Nepal, China, and Russia and has an international following. Buddhism was introduced to Tibet in two waves, first when rulers of the Tibetan Empire (seventh to ninth centuries CE), embraced the Buddhist faith as their state religion, and during the second diffusion (late tenth through thirteenth centuries), when monks and translators brought in Buddhist culture from India, Nepal, and Central Asia. As a result, the entire Buddhist canon was translated into Tibetan, and monasteries grew to become centers of intellectual, cultural, and political power. From the end of the twelfth century, Tibetans were exporting their own Buddhist traditions abroad. Tibetan Buddhism integrates Mahayana teachings with the esoteric practices of Vajrayana, and includes those developed in Tibet, such as Dzogchen, as well as indigenous Tibetan religious practices focused on local gods. Historically major traditions of Tibetan Buddhism are Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Geluk.

The Sanskrit Buddhist Canon was translated into Tibetan from the seventh century onward during the first and second diffusions. The Sakya-tradition scholar Buton Rinchen Drub (1290–1364) gave this mass of translations its final, codified form. The Tibetan canon is divided into two parts, which together usually take up hundreds of volumes:

1. The Kangyur, “Translation of [the Buddha’s] Words,” contains texts believed to have been taught by the Buddha himself, including Sutras, Tantras, and the Vinaya.
2. The Tengyur, “Translation of Teachings,” contains commentaries, scholastic works, philosophical studies, and other topics.
3. The original Sanskrit canon was mostly lost with the decline of Buddhism in India, making the Tibetan and Chinese translations the only two surviving Mahayana canons.

In Buddhism, upadesha refers to instructions and commentary given from a teacher to a student about the understanding of a particular text. In the Vajrayana tradition, upadesha means secret, oral instructions, often given following an abhisheka ritual when a practitioner is initiated into the practice of a certain tantra.

In Mahayana Buddhism, Ushnishavijaya was the name of a particular dharani incantation popular across the Buddhist world. In the Vajrayana tradition, Ushnishavijaya became personified as a deity, usually depicted as a serene white six-armed female. Ushnishavijaya rituals are often performed as wishes for long-life, and the deity is one of the three deities of long-life, along with Amitayus and White Tara.

The Vajravali is a collection of esoteric teachings on mandala construction written by the Indian monk Abhayakaragupta (eleventh to twelfth centuries). The Vajravali was the first attempt to systematize and provide iconographic guides for the mandalas used in various Vajrayana tantras, which were widely transmitted in Tibet.

Vajrayana is one of the three great doctrinal divisions of Buddhism, along with Theravada and Mahayana. Vajrayana can be understood as tantric Buddhism. Historians debate when Vajrayana first appeared, but it was clearly understood as a separate tradition by the eighth century CE, and most of its major texts were written by the twelfth century. Vajrayana ritual and art are characterized by visualization, deity yoga, wrathful deities, mandalas, mantras, initiations and empowerments (abhisheka), and ritual sexual union. These teachings are transmitted in texts called tantras and sadhanas, as well as through secret instructions (Skt. upadesha) from a teacher. Essentially all Himalayan Buddhist traditions integrate Mahayana and Vajrayana practices.

The Vedas are an ancient body of Sanskrit-language texts, the earliest decipherable texts of the religion we now call Hinduism. There are traditionally four Vedas:

• The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas, composed in the late second millennium BCE. It contains hymns (Skt. mantras) to gods like Indra, Vishnu, and the fire-god Agni.
• The Samaveda contains hymns similar to those in the Rigveda, although of a later date.
• The Yajurveda contains mantras to be spoken during fire sacrifices (Skt. yagnya).
• The Atharva Veda contains incantations for a variety of medical and exorcistic purposes.

Each Veda also contains subsidiary books, often written centuries later, which contain ritual instructions and philosophical discussions.

In Buddhism, the Vinaya is the code of conduct for members of the Sangha, that is, monks and nuns. While there are different versions of the Vinaya texts and ordination lineages, generally, monks take a different number and types of vows according to the tradition and their individual level of ordination. Vinaya as a set of rules are used in all Buddhist monasteries and nunneries, although nuns are required to take more numerous vows than monks.

Visualization is a process of using one’s imagination to transform reality. A practitioner imagines in their mind’s eye the deity with the associated enlightened qualities they wish to embody themselves. When focused on a specific deity, visualization and related ritual practices are called deity yoga. Visualization is a fundamental element of such practices described in texts known tantras, which define a system of meditation and ritual meant to transform the mind and body.

In Hinduism, a vrata is a devotional ritual, often performed by women. Vratas typically involve making a vow of purity and fasting for a period. They can also include making a pilgrimage to a Hindu shrine, giving charitable donations, or other types of piety.

In Hinduism, yantras are geometric designs thought to have divine power. Some yantras are the symbols of deities, while others represent astrological concepts. Yantras can be drawn as part of devotional practice, placed on altars for their auspicious and obstacle-repelling properties, or used as aids for meditation. A similar concept in Vajrayana Buddhism is a mandala.

In Hinduism, a yatra is a pilgrimage to a particular shrine or sacred place. Many important temples and pithas have a set date for a yearly mass-pilgrimage.

Called the “Image of the Great Ultimate” (Ch. taijitu), the yin-yang symbol shows two interlocking colors (usually black and white) that swirl together to form a circle. In Daoism and more cosmological forms of Confucianism, this symbol represents the interlocked forces of yang (the sun, light, male, active) and yin (the moon, dark, female, passive) that form the basic complementary pattern of the universe. The yin-yang symbol is often found at the center of Chinese talismans and other protective imagery.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, deity yoga is a meditative visualization practice centered on a deity. Practitioners imagine themselves as a deity (Tib. yidam), or visualize the deity in front of themselves, while contemplating and internalizing the deity’s enlightened qualities of mind and powers. As a result, the practitioners develop a special connection with the deity and attain the deity’s awakened state. Specific instructions on the practice of deity yoga are laid out in tantras, and in texts called sadhana.

The Yoga Tantras are the third of the fourfold division of tantras used in the Tibetan later-diffusion traditions. The main texts of the Yoga Tantras are the Tattvasamgraha Tantra and the Vajrashekara Tantra. The Yoga Tantras teach about the Five Buddha Families of the Vajra-Realm, and are focused on the Buddha Vairochana. Unlike most of the Highest Yoga Tantras, the Yoga Tantras were known in Tang and Song Dynasty China, and are still practiced today in Japan.

Zhije is a set of meditative practices taught by Padampa Sanggye (d.1117), an Indian tantric master, or siddha, who spent much of his life traveling and giving teachings in Himalayan regions and Tibet. Usually associated with the chod or “cutting” practices, the Zhije practices involve the visualization of cutting away one’s body, and ultimately the ego, as a means of reaching enlightenment. These teachings were further spread and popularized in Tibet by his student, Machik Labdron (1055–1153), one of the most prominent female tantric masters and lineage holders in Tibetan Buddhism. She widely transmitted these practices focused on the deity Vajrayogini and even became identified with this deity.