The Commemorative Stupas of the Lang/Pakmodrupa Dynasty
Jean-Luc Estournel
Parnashavari; Tibet; ca. 1370; metal, precious stones; 12½ × 11½ × 8 in. (31.8 × 29.2 × 20.3 cm); Private collection; HAR 32081; image after Czaja and Proser 2014, 121
Densatil Monastery
Pakmodru, U region, central Tibet (present-day TAR, China)founded 1158
Parnashavari; Tibet; ca. 1370; metal, precious stones; 12½ × 11½ × 8 in. (31.8 × 29.2 × 20.3 cm); Private collection; HAR 32081; image after Czaja and Proser 2014, 121
Summary
Scholar Jean-Luc Estournel introduces the magnificent golden stupas of Densatil Monastery, their complex sculptural programs of Buddhist deities known as “mandala of mandalas” and “the whole Olympus of Mahayana.” The oldest of these gilt and bejeweled stupas was built according to the second abbot of Densatil Jikten Gonpo’s meditative visions to commemorate Densatil’s first abbot. Later stupas chart the rise and fall of the Pakmodrupa family, who ruled Tibet after expelling the Mongols.
In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.
Gilding is a metalworking technique in which a fine golden surface is applied over a statue made of bronze. In Newar metalworking workshops, gilding is typically done with fire and mercury, which gives sculptures a warm finish (but is poisonous for their makers). In Tibetan contexts sometimes gold dust is mixed with glue and applied with a brush (often called “cold gold”), especially to a deity’s face to gain merit.
Inlay is a decorative technique of creating a depression in a surface and then filling it with some other material. Metal can be inlaid with precious stones or glass, or more precious forms of metal, for instance, brass inlaid with silver and copper. Wood can be inlaid with silver, or other metal and conch. Tibetans tend to favor turquoise inlay while the Newars employ a range of colored glass and semi-precious stones.
In the Buddhist context, a relic is an object or body part of a past master or sacred figure, including Buddha Shakyamuni himself (bones, ashes from cremation, even entire mummified bodies). Another important category of relics is called “sharira” in Sanskrit (Tib. ringsel)— small, pearl-like objects that are found within the cremated remains of enlightened teachers. Another category, known as contact relics, includes things owned or touched by religious masters, such as the Buddha’s robe or bowl. Important types widely used in Himalayan regions are dharma relics (dharma sharira), which are pressed clay plaques inscribed with the verse of dependent origination or mantras. Relics can be placed inside stupas, ground up and used for medicine, or kept in temples for the reverence of pilgrims. A container that holds relics is called a “reliquary.”
Stupas are monuments that initially contained cremated remains of Buddha Shakyamuni or important monks, his disciples, and subsequently other material and symbolic relics associated with the Buddha’s body, teaching, and enlightened mind. As representations of the Buddha’s presence in the world, stupas with their contents—texts, relics, tsatsas—continue to be important objects of Buddhist worship in their diverse forms of domed structures, multistoried pagodas, and portable sculptures. The original form of stupas was an earthen dome-shaped mound containing the remains in reliquary vessels or urns deposited within the innermost core. The dome would often be successively enlarged and surrounded by a path for a walk around in a clockwise direction and veneration (circumambulation)
Tantra was a religious movement in India around the fifth to seventh centuries, and its practices are part of Buddhism and Hinduism. The word tantra also refers to texts which transmit tantric practices. In Buddhism, tantra is also called Vajrayana, “The Vajra Vehicle.” Tantric ritual and art are characterized by deity yoga, mandalas, mantras, abhisheka (initiation), wrathful deities, and ritual sexual union. In Hinduism, tantrism was often associated with the worship of Shiva and various goddesses (shakti). A practitioner of tantra is called a “tantrika.” Tantra is also a genre of texts that have been variously categorized. Most common is the division of tantras into four categories: Kriya Tantra, Charya Tantra, Yoga Tantra, and Highest Yoga Tantra.
The study of public and private collections of Tibetan art has made it possible to identify a group of objects of uncommon quality, often of larger than normal sizes, and above all presenting superb and very rich inclusions of semiprecious stones. It is only since the 1990s that, by comparing such objects with photographs taken in 1948 by P. F. Mele (fig. 2), they could be identified as elements of the large commemorative (height approximately sixteen feet, or five meters) built at the Densatil between 1267 and 1435.
Fig. 2.
Pietro Francesco Mele (Italian, b. ca. 1924); Detail of Second Tashi Gomang; Densatil Monastery, U region, central Tibet (present-day TAR, China); erected from 1360 for Drakpa Gyeltsen; gelatin silver print, 1948; Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich; VMZ-402-00-0513; photograph courtesy Ethnographic Museum at the University of Zurich
Densatil Monastery
Densatil Monastery developed from 1198 onward around the hut that the monk Dorje Gyelpo built in 1158 at a place called overlooking the Yarlung Tsangpo River, in the present Neudong District. Its fame rests on the eighteen stupas erected between 1170 and 1570, housing the of a long lineage of abbots of the Lang/Pakmodrupa dynasty, and mainly on the eight great, elaborately ornamented ones partially visible in the photographs taken in 1948 by Mele. These eight very specific monuments are undoubtedly among the most complex and precious ever built in Tibet.
A Brief History of the Eight Monumental Stupas of Densatil
The first of the eighteen stupas once at Densatil was cast in 1170 to house the heart of Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyelpo (1110–1170), which remained intact after cremation, together with other relics. This stupa was called Tashi Wobar, or Radiating Light of Auspiciousness. It was a huge mahaparinirvana-type stupa associated with the Buddha’s passing, created in the Kadampa style, as was common practice at the time. In the years following the construction of the monastery, the Tashi Wobar lay at the heart of an incredible political and artistic adventure due to Jikten Gonpo (1143–1217), who served as second abbot of Densatil from 1177 to 1179 before leaving for his own monastery in .
After the construction of the main hall of Densatil in 1198, Jikten Gonpo went to meditate at Gampo in the Dakpo area and there had a vision of the “pure crystal mountain” of Tsari with the Chakrasamvara in his palace, the whole surrounded by twenty-eight hundred deities, organized as a monumental Stupa of Many Auspicious Doors, or tashi gomang–type stupa.
On his return to Drigung, in order to pay homage to his master, he undertook to build the multi-chapel monument (fig. 3) he had visualized to serve as a pedestal for the Tashi Wobar stupa of Pakmodrupa, which he brought to Drigung from Densatil. The construction work on this monument, organized in six levels supporting hundreds of deities in gilt copper alloy and precious materials on all its faces, seems to have lasted ten years, until 1208.
Fig. 3. Structure of a Tashi Gomang of the Pakmodrupa Type; image after https://www.asianart.com/articles/densatil/8.html
This particular type of tashi gomang stupa, which must be considered as the Reliquary Stupa of Many Auspicious Doors for Pakmodrupa, would then be reproduced to commemorate selected deceased abbots of Drigung and Densatil, since they were the holders of the direct lineage of the master.
To sum up, the tashi gomang stupa model created by Jikten Gonpo must be considered, as Christian Luczanits phrased it in an essay title, a “ of mandalas,” a veritable tangle of universes of deities (twenty-eight hundred in total); Luczanits in turn was referring to Giuseppe Tucci’s description during his visit to Densatil in 1948: “The whole Olympus of seemed to have been assembled on those monuments.”
The fact that Jikten Gonpo chose to build this memorial stupa to his master in his own monastery rather than in Densatil, which would have been its logical location, is historically interesting. Indeed, it may suggest that the abbot of Drigung attempted to shift the power of Densatil’s spiritual center from its abandoned location to his own monastery, to gain political advantage over other powerful contemporary Buddhist traditions. It seems that from the outset, the tashi gomang stupas of Drigung (totally destroyed during the repression of the Drigung revolt against the /Mongol rule in 1290) and then Densatil were created with political aims in addition to a sacred function, which explains their unusual magnificence.
The departure of the Tashi Wobar stupa from Densatil having caused troubles among the local population, Jikten Gonpo judged it preferable to return it there in 1208, with Drakpa Jungne (1175–1255), one of his main disciples, as the new abbot. A member of the powerful Lang family, he took care in 1235 to place his brother Drakpa Tsondru (1203–1267) on the throne of Densatil before returning to Drigung to become the new abbot, thus initiating a shift of dependence, which took Densatil from the tutelage of Drigung to that of his clan.
The extent of Drakpa Tsondru’s fame brought him many offerings from as far away as the Khasa Malla Kingdom of western Nepal and Ceylon. The decision by the Lang clan to erect the first tashi gomang stupa in Densatil, on the model of the ones in Drigung to honor the memory of Drakpa Tsondru after his death, took place at a key moment in the history of the Lang/Pakmodrupa clan.
With the definitive seizure of power by the Sakya tradition over Tibet through Qubilai (Kubilai) Khan’s nomination of Pakpa (1235–1280) as the ruler of Tibet, the Sakya administration divided the territory into thirteen myriarchies, one of which fell to the Lang, already strong with the prestige of their monastery of Densatil. The Mongolian takeover of Tibet then placed Densatil and the surrounding area under the protection of Hülegü (1217–1265), grandson of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan and founder, in 1256, of the Mongol Il–Khan dynasty in the Middle East, who is said to have made important offerings to the monastery. It is conceivable that at the time the Lang clan was in a prosperous financial position to decide to undertake this exceptional construction in order to affirm the greatness of its temporal and spiritual power over his and beyond.
The second tashi gomang stupa was built in 1360 for Drakpa Gyeltsen (1293–1360), the eighth abbot of the monastery from 1310 to 1360. All sources unanimously confirm that his brother Jangchub Gyeltsen (1302–1364), who succeeded in taking temporal power over the country from the Sakyapas, had a commemorative tashi gomang stupa erected for Drakpa Gyeltsen. Given that the Lang/Pakmodrupa clan now reigned over Tibet, Jangchub Gyeltsen, as head of one of the most prestigious and richest monasteries, had no choice but to revive this prestigious tradition to affirm the power of his family.
Six more tashi gomang stupas were built for the next six abbots, in 1370, 1386, 1407, 1408, 1431–1432, and 1434. While remaining at very high levels of quality, the works from the Densatil tashi gomang stupas are a perfect reflection of the political rise and fall of the Lang/Pakmodrupa dynasty. From 1360 to 1408, the sculptures are decorated with rich of semiprecious stones, following a typology that characterizes the style of Densatil and therefore of the Lang/Pakmodrupa dynasty.
Description of a Reliquary Stupa of Many Auspicious Doors for Pakmodrupa
The analysis of the tashi gomang stupas of Densatil allows us to note that if the general iconographic plan globally remained the same over time, variations exist. The numbers of divinities indicated by the texts imply that some mandalas constituting certain tiers have been modified or replaced by more complex ones, while perhaps retaining the same basic divinities. These variations are probably due to the particular tantric texts studied by the concerned abbots.
We will here simply refer to the six-tiered structure of the archetype described in various texts, from top to bottom (fig. 3):
Tier 1
At the top of tier 1, around a huge Kadampa-style mahaparinirvana stupa, are arranged masters lineages, two representations of to the east and south, Chakrasamvara to the west (fig. 4), and to the north. Three aspects of /Vajravarahi are indicated to be placed in front of each of these four main deities.
Tier 2
Tier 2 presents various texts of the Highest , including the Anuttarayoga Tantra, with the seventy-two deity mandala of Guhyasamaja in the east, the assembly of in the south, that of Hevajra in the west, and the sixty-two deity mandala of Chakrasamvara in the north. An aspect of is arranged at each of the four corners.
Tier 3
Tier 3 presents on the east face the mandala in forty-seven deities, on the south the assembly of Buddhakapala, on the west the assembly of , and on the north the mandala in fourteen deities of Chakrasamvara. An aspect of is arranged at each of the four corners (fig. 5).
Fig. 4
Chakrasamvara in Union with Vajravarahi; central Tibet; ca. 1386; gilt copper alloy with pigments, turquoise inlay; 12-5/8 × 12¼ × 6 in. (32.1 × 31.1 × 15.2 cm); Rubin Museum of Art; C2005.16.16 (HAR 65438)
Fig. 5
Achala, the Immovable One; central Tibet; ca. 1386; gilt copper alloy; 10-5/8 × 10-1/8 × 4-5/8 in. (27 × 25.7 × 11.7 cm); Rubin Museum of Art; C2005.16.24 (HAR 65447)
Tier 4
Tier 4 presents in the center of each side a Buddha surrounded by two of the eight bodhisattvas of the Bhadrakalpa and two wrathful deities on each side. They are surrounded on each side by two hundred and fifty representations of the tathagata of their respective directions. A gate guardian (dvarapala) is arranged at each of the four corners.
Tier 5
This tier is dedicated to goddesses. On each side are three central goddesses flanked by the group of the sixteen goddesses of sensual enjoyment bearing offerings. The four main goddesses occupying the center of each side are Parnashavari in the east, Eight-Armed in the south, Dhvajagrakeyura in the west, and in the north.
Tier 6
Tier 6 is the lowest level. On each face, on either side of a central lotus stem, we find an aspect of and one of the goddess Lhamo (fig. 6), themselves flanked by two deities of wealth and two nagarajas closing the section. They are all arranged in the foliage of scrolls supporting the lotus flower from which the rest of the monument seems to emerge.
At the front of the monument were placed the Four Guardian Kings of Space (fig. 7).
Fig. 6
Lhamo; Densatil Monastery, U region, central Tibet (present-day TAR, China); ca. 1407–1408; gilt copper alloy, color, semi-precious stones; 22½ × 22-5/8 × 5-11/16 in; (57.2 × 57.5 × 14.5 cm); National Museum of Asian Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Purchase, funds provided by the Friends of Asian Arts in honor of the 10th Anniversary of the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery; S1997.27 (HAR 32076); image courtesy Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Olaf Czaja, Medieval Rule in Tibet: The Rlangs Clan and the Political and Religious History of the Ruling House of Phag mo gru pa (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2014), 380, 381.
4
Christian Luczanits, “Mandalas of Mandalas: The Iconography of a Stupa of Many Auspicious Doors for Phagmodrupa,” in Tibetan Art and Architecture in Context: Tibetan Studies. PIATS 2006: Proceedings of the Eleventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Königswinter 2006 (Andiast: International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies, 2010), 281–310.
5
Giuseppe Tucci, To Lhasa and Beyond: Diary of an Expedition to Tibet in the Year 1948 (Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1956), 128.
6
See Elliot Sperling, “Hulegu and Tibet,” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 44, no. 1–2 (1990): 145–57.
Further Reading
Czaja, Olaf. 2014. Medieval Rule in Tibet: The Rlangs Clan and the Political and Religious History of the Ruling House of Phag mo gru pa. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Czaja, Olaf, and Adriana G. Proser. 2014. Golden Visions of Densatil: A Tibetan Buddhist Monastery. Exhibition catalog. New York: Asia Society.
In Buddhist context, donor is a person who contributes to or commissions a religious work of art. This act is intended to increase merit on behalf of the benefactor and is dedicated to the benefit of all. It is also usually done for a specific purpose, such as longevity, prosperity, or well-being; to advance religious practice; or to ensure a good rebirth of a deceased relative, teacher, or friend. A similar practice is also known in Hinduism and Bon.
Gilding is a metalworking technique in which a fine golden surface is applied over a statue made of bronze. In Newar metalworking workshops, gilding is typically done with fire and mercury, which gives sculptures a warm finish (but is poisonous for their makers). In Tibetan contexts sometimes gold dust is mixed with glue and applied with a brush (often called “cold gold”), especially to a deity’s face to gain merit.
Inlay is a decorative technique of creating a depression in a surface and then filling it with some other material. Metal can be inlaid with precious stones or glass, or more precious forms of metal, for instance, brass inlaid with silver and copper. Wood can be inlaid with silver, or other metal and conch. Tibetans tend to favor turquoise inlay while the Newars employ a range of colored glass and semi-precious stones.
In the Buddhist context, a relic is an object or body part of a past master or sacred figure, including Buddha Shakyamuni himself (bones, ashes from cremation, even entire mummified bodies). Another important category of relics is called “sharira” in Sanskrit (Tib. ringsel)— small, pearl-like objects that are found within the cremated remains of enlightened teachers. Another category, known as contact relics, includes things owned or touched by religious masters, such as the Buddha’s robe or bowl. Important types widely used in Himalayan regions are dharma relics (dharma sharira), which are pressed clay plaques inscribed with the verse of dependent origination or mantras. Relics can be placed inside stupas, ground up and used for medicine, or kept in temples for the reverence of pilgrims. A container that holds relics is called a “reliquary.”
Stupas are monuments that initially contained cremated remains of Buddha Shakyamuni or important monks, his disciples, and subsequently other material and symbolic relics associated with the Buddha’s body, teaching, and enlightened mind. As representations of the Buddha’s presence in the world, stupas with their contents—texts, relics, tsatsas—continue to be important objects of Buddhist worship in their diverse forms of domed structures, multistoried pagodas, and portable sculptures. The original form of stupas was an earthen dome-shaped mound containing the remains in reliquary vessels or urns deposited within the innermost core. The dome would often be successively enlarged and surrounded by a path for a walk around in a clockwise direction and veneration (circumambulation)
Tantra was a religious movement in India around the fifth to seventh centuries, and its practices are part of Buddhism and Hinduism. The word tantra also refers to texts which transmit tantric practices. In Buddhism, tantra is also called Vajrayana, “The Vajra Vehicle.” Tantric ritual and art are characterized by deity yoga, mandalas, mantras, abhisheka (initiation), wrathful deities, and ritual sexual union. In Hinduism, tantrism was often associated with the worship of Shiva and various goddesses (shakti). A practitioner of tantra is called a “tantrika.” Tantra is also a genre of texts that have been variously categorized. Most common is the division of tantras into four categories: Kriya Tantra, Charya Tantra, Yoga Tantra, and Highest Yoga Tantra.
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